Birth Control Psychological Research Essay

The article written by Edward Pohlman in October of 1966 brought up interesting points in relation to psychologist and birth control. It provided both independent variables and dependent variables that helped to show why individuals decide on contraception, or decide not to use them. He pushed to show why psychologist haven’t done much research in the area of birth control and their related topics, by suggesting that non-psychologist are the researchers that boast interest in studying the topic because of potential overpopulation problems. I think the decision to treat independent and dependant variables about psychological effects of using birth control is relevant to all people that take part in intercourse and having children because these decisions are critical choices in life that decide whether future children will be able to thrive on our planet, and live without psychological damages from parental neglect. Some variables include, but are not limited to the number of children wanted, contraception’s, and measured personality. (Pohlman, Eugenics Quarterly.). Some psychological factors that were pointed out to be some major independent variables were total family size, mother’s age at first birth, duration of marriage, spacing between births, sex of the children, inability to have children, adoption and celibacy. (Polhman, Eugenics.). â€Å"Psychologist do not play key roles in whether or not countries engage in extensive use of birth control planning, or to control their population, rather private companies are relied upon to handle technical assistance and procedures.† (Journal of Social Issues.). This is the problem that needs to be addressed and accounted for; however, the author doesn’t provide evidence or notation of where, who, what, and how the study is taking place. He continues with, psychologists play an important role in contraception because they h ave the intelligence and â€Å"know-how† (Pohlman, Edwards.). to intervene with a patients and help the people decide if birth control is something that is an option or not. Once again the author is providing a statement rather than actual facts to lead on his arguments, but the argument is sound. Some studies that psychologist participated in were promoting the idea of contraception to both smaller families and that of larger families. The idea was to provide the idea that contraception wasn’t necessarily a problem and that they had to deal with, rather more of an option. The problem with this particular independent variable is that relationships with one culture could be completely different with relationships with other cultures. Population densities take psychological effects, so studies found that since the world population was a major concern then they would target high populated areas to conduct their research. These studies are important because of the food supply that would rapidly decline as the population increased. (Pohlman, Journal of Social Issues.). The author could have researched a graph and included it in his argument for a more frontal approach to help the reading see the truth in which he is attempting to provide. Psychologists found that the same psychological effects can be played in reverse when giving birth to a child. In a large probability sample of American wife’s in 1960, 17% were willing to admit that their latest conception had not really been wanted by both spouses. (Whelpton,Cambell, &Patterson, 1966, Pp.235-239.). As a parent, you have responsibility to your child, but having a psychologist discuss the precautions involved both positive and negatives, can make you question ones desirability and how you feel about having another child or not. According to Edward Pohlman it’s more profitable for a psychologist to study the effects on psychological depen dent variables such as, contraception and birth planning procedures, births of circumstances in the family, and population characteristics. This is why psychologist wait to conduct their research as opposed to taking the study from the start. Studies have shown that that any psychological factors that could influence anyone in a given culture towards having children, or having more children would not show up for the testing. (The Psychology of Birth Planning.). Psychologist also found that social class or even religious preferences tend to play a key role in decision making time that can be psychological in its self. â€Å"Every form of contraception has psychological effects on the person using them sexually.† (Edward Pohlman.). The article didn’t provide any data on psychological effects sexually, but it can be justified through the research of sterilization, abortion, infanticide, and abstinence. (Whelpton, P. K., Campbell, A. A., & Patterson.). in Edwards research he didn’t provide examples. Another form of dependent variable that was acknowledged was the effects of guilt. Guilt has been found to be one of the biggest issues when regarding to religious beliefs, rationalization and other phenomena related instances. (The Psycology of Birth Planning). Once again Edward Pohlman doesn’t provide proof to justify his statements; which is disappointing. In conclusion, the author leaves the reader questioning his argument because of the lack of data that he is able to extract from psychological studies. In my opinion, his sources are valid sources; however, to complete his argument that psychologist haven’t done enough research in the area of birth control and related topics, he needs to dig deeper and find sources that can find a better way to link the psychological factors on birth control and psychologists studies. This will help him complete his argument that without contraception our planet will be doomed do to over population. I also think he needs to find more information on the experiment entirely in its self. The studies took place in small and large populated areas, ok? As the reader, I want detail as to how the study was conducted? How many participants were involved? He gives examples of problems that could potentially be a disadvantage for psychologist. Edward Pohlman was correct that not enough studies are being conducted by psychologist. His argument is sound and on point.

Co-Occurring Disorders and Addiction Essay

Treatment of drug and alcohol addiction is seldom as simple as merely addressing the particular chemicals addict is taking into his body. More often than not, addicts suffer from other disorders in conjunction with their chemical dependency. The clinical reference to such a condition is called co-occurring disorders (Doweiko, 2012). According to Arias and Kranzler (2008) an estimated 1. 1 percent of the U. S. population has an alcohol use disorder with a co-occurring use disorder (DUD). This type of co-morbidity is sometimes referred to as homotypic co ­morbidity or dual dependence. According to Doweiko (2012), dual diagnosis clients refer to patients that suffer from a concurrent form of mental illness and an SUD. Co-occurring substance disorders include but are not limited to anorexia, bulimia, gambling, abuse (spousal), compulsive shopping, AIDS, and compulsive sexual behaviors (Doweiko, 2012). People who are active substance abusers or withdrawal from many drugs of abuse can magnify or simulate symptoms of psychiatric disorders. Addiction is common in people with mental health problems. Although substance abuse and mental health disorders like depression and anxiety are closely linked, one does not directly cause the other (Doweiko, 2012). In a dual diagnosis, both the mental health issue and the drug or alcohol addiction have their own unique symptoms that may get in the way of your ability to function, handle life’s difficulties, and relate to others (Stinson, et al. , 2005). To make the situation more complicated, the co-occurring disorders also affect each other and interact. According to Stinson et al (2005) when a mental health problem goes untreated, the substance abuse problem usually worsens and when alcohol or drug abuse increases, mental health problems will likely increase as well. An essential step to gaining freedom from addiction involves understanding the dynamics of addiction. The addiction cycle describes the reoccurring process that takes place as person struggles with their addiction(s). Co-occurring disorders and addiction relation to the addiction cycle is that addictive behaviors offer a fake sense of escape, pleasure, and involve psychological or physiological dependence. According to Scalise (2012) the increased symptoms and challenging treatment process add to difficulties of breaking the addiction cycle. The addiction cycle begins with pain which leads individuals to reach their absolute lowest, which many calle â€Å"hitting bottom† and then seek relief (i. . treatment). The addiction cycle continues with the addictive behaviors leading the individual to feel good just before crashing and experiencing pain again, thus restarting the cycle (Scalise, 2012). Understanding co-occurring disorders is vital to the proper treatment of chemical dependency clients. If all co-occurring disorders are effectively dealt with, there’s no reason why the addict should not regain their life as a drug-free member of society.

Development in Durban

Here at USAID, our mission is to provide economic development and humanitarian assistance to people located all around the world. At USAID we ave a strong sector focused on Sub-Saharan African development. We notice that Durban is an up-and-coming city, with the potential to be a thriving seven million- person city by the turn of the century. We are contacting you about your future sustainable urban development.There are rural areas located around your city which are extremely agricultural, but these farms are in need of exporting their goods in order to make money, and a high poverty level still arises in South Africa. We want to stimulate both Durban and the surrounding rural cities' economic development and growth through implementing sustainable agricultural evelopment programs throughout the area. Much attention has been raised towards sustainable economic development and growth as barriers are taken down and globalization continues to expand to the most rural parts of the world .We believe that Durban, as a booming city of more than three million people, is a perfect place to implement sustainable urban agriculture and a city where the benefits will be fully reaped. Once these plans have taken shape, countries throughout Africa will take notice of the efficient resource use and city-wide positive development that has taken place. This paper will lay out three advantages that will stem from adding agriculture into urban life: the involvement of women and children in societal development, environmental benefits, and a benefit in food security.As the 17th Conference of the Parties to the UN Conference on Climate Change in Durban is around the corner (l am sure you know but as a reminder the 28th of November), now is a perfect time to seriously consider the benefits of sustainable urban agriculture as a means towards bettering the society, economy, and environment. Why does Durban, South Africa need to involve urban agriculture within its city nd surrounding a reas? A r ca, Latin America, and Asia, by the year 2 home to 75% of urban dwellers world-wide.This same study conducted by the Resource Centres for Urban Agriculture and Food Security (RUAF) predicted that by 2020, 40-45% of the poor in Africa will be concentrated in towns and cities (â€Å"Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security†). After taking a look at these statistics, one can comprehend the magnitude of the effects on cities that the global population increase will cause. I am going to give you some examples of urban gricultural projects from other cities worldwide before I delve into the positive effects of implementing such projects into your city.Essentially, an urban farm can be found in window sills, abandoned warehouses, and old parking lots. The magazine Farming the City highlights several examples of urban agriculture. One such community-boosting project is under way in Berlin, Germany. Here, the community has come together to convert the unused s pace of a half-century-old wasteland into an area suitable for growing vegetation and fruits. Activists and community members were the main people involved in the project.The article notes that such spaces would promote community development through the sharing of knowledge, a â€Å"mini utopia† where people enjoy fresh foods and relax (Stipo 7). Architectural design has aimed at building fixtures in the urban sectors of cities, such as in the OosteliJk havengebeid district of Amsterdam. Here, a greenhouse† plan has been undertaken. This greenhouse will feature shops on the ground floor, restaurants on the top and effective uses of window-placement that allow maximum sunlight for the cultivation of crops.The area outside of the greenhouse will be used as a locally- rown vegetable garden. (Stipo 6). Examples such as these show how community development can be achieved through organized gardens run by civilians and new building designs where sustainable practices are enfo rced. Let me start out with giving a detailed overview of why sustainable agricultural development will be implemented into Durban and the surrounding rural areas.Sustainable development, without the added agricultural term, is defined as â€Å"development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs†l . Why have humans even come to this point where there is an extremely viable chance that future generations will not be able to survive on this planet? The answer can be boiled down to misuse of natural resources and humans' inability to be environmental stewards, taking care of the land which they rely on for food and water.I Just want to include some data on Africa's deforestation and poor land use so as to drill home the point of the need for sustainable agricultural methods to be implemented. South Africa, as a growing developing country, should heed warming of the harmful effects that deforestation as to lled upon Earth and its people in recent history. For one, deforestation causes soil erosion, which eventually leads to desertification and the pollution of waterways. Sub-Saharan Africa does not need dry, infertile land.Land needs to remain fertile in order for the production of food to take place. South Africa's climate does not provide for much indigenous forest, as only 0. 5% of its surface area is covered by it (Collins). Urban agriculture will relieve deforestation, as it provides food to be produced within a city and not on large-scale farms. Much care should be put towards preserving hese forests. Urban agriculture aims at using less resources and the creativity of the human mind to create organic toods which nave the ability to keep the relationship between man and the world a healthy one.The fact that up to 75 percent of the population in 29 Sub-Saharan Africa countries was constituted as malnourished in 2004, is alarming. Most of these individuals farm for a living, not m aking much money or providing food for their families or even their selves. Malnourishment and poverty essentially go hand in hand. In fact, in the year 2000, 59 percent of people lived below the poverty line of US 1 [day (United Nations Environment). Urban agricultural development can be used to benefit the society of African areas.The fact that children and women are forced to work long hours on their farms and are still hungry is mainly due to the fact that they have no money to support themselves. They are not making enough money selling their crops and therefore do not have enough money to buy their own food. As a solution to this problem, Alex Colletta, a columnist for the University of California, Santa Barbara's daily newspaper, Daily Nexus, writes that by implementing self- ustaining farms into vacant lots and backyards, children and women can â€Å"promote community spirit†¦ rovide fresh vegetables and fruits to several businesses and homeless shelters and also help feed a dying economy by helping small restaurants get the best food for cheap prices† (Colletta 4). As urban farmers no longer have to worry about paying for food, they can make a profit to live on. While the organic farming that Alex Colletta talks about in her article is coming from Detroit, a city in northern Michigan, USA, there is no doubt that the poor in South Africa can use it as form of both a societal community booster and a form of economic development.Detroit has many abandoned factories, and these are what are being used for the new urban farms; Durban can build greenhouses and buildings in non-developed areas in order to promote the citys poor to become urban famers. Bill McKibben writes in his magazine article entitled A Special Moment in History that â€Å"Growing too fast may mean that they [poor people in slums] run short of cropland to feed themselves, of firewood to cook their food, of school desks and hospital beds† (McKibben, 400). He explains in t his part of his article how population growth akes it difficult for the poor members of society to sustain their livelihoods.One key pressure in the wake of rising African populations is food security. One major dilemma the poor face in the growing world, food security, centers on individuals' abilities to have healthy food when they need it. In Amy N. Lerner's article about food security and food production in the global south, she states that â€Å"research in Africa has found that economic and caloric needs are the primary motivations for populations in urban and pert-urban areas to pursue agriculture† (Lerner, 6).With ising population densities, there is a rise in resource necessities; while this is the case, available labor and land remains low. Urban agriculture has the ability to provide organic fresh vegetables and fruits to a growing population within Durban. Families will be working within the community in order to provide food for community-run farmers markets and for their own families. With the smart use of land-planning, which is a major part of urban agriculture, along with having more people work, smarter, less resource-intensive urban areas will bloom.Three advantages of organic farming are centralized on the society, the economy nd the environment; urban agriculture, as an organic form of farming, brings about all three ot these advantages. The advantage that organic urban farming poses towards cities and its population (society) revolves around the development of women and the alleviation of poverty, which brings about greater food security. Organic public markets, commonly known as farmers' markets, provide a place where members of society can convene and purchase locally-grown foods.So, by promoting local food production for local needs, global policy should move away from subsidizing corporate food exports and opening p to foreign food imports, which drives small-scale farmers off of their land, and towards a policy that promotes s mall-scale, environmentally sound farming that provides for local markets (Brecher, Costello, Smith 316). Due to the fact that 59 percent of people worldwide lived below the poverty line of IJS$I ‘day in the year 2000, new forms of aid for those who suffer from wages not able to sustain a healthy livelihood are pivotal in development (United Nations Environment Programme ).With development strategies in place, women and children will learn how to grow vegetables and fruits, therefore being able to feed hemselves and sell food in local farmers markets. An increasing role in women's livelihoods has an extremely positive benefit for communities. Mayra Buvinic notes in her article Women in Poverty: A New Global Underclass manors in which national and international policies can change and improve to yield great benefits for poor women and the developing world. Two implementations Ms.Buvinic recommends are to â€Å"Increase rural women's access to agricultural extension servicesâ⠂¬  and â€Å"adopt labor- intensive ‘pro-poor' economic growth policies that expand employment opportunities† (Buvinic 161). Examples of agricultural extension services include access to current news via internet and television broadcasts as well as agricultural production information and technologies (â€Å"Rural Extension and Advisory Services†). With these services, poor women in urban South Africa will become more knowledgeable as to ways they can improve their livelihoods while still being considered farmers.Urban farmers are realizing that food markets where they can share their products with other members of their community are great places to make money, socialize, and learn new ways to efficiently grow crops. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization's â€Å"The State of Food and Agriculture, 2010-2011- Women in Agriculture† report, if women had the same access as men to productive resources, they could increase yields on their farms by 20-30 percent. This increase would cause for a 2. 5-4. percent increase in Africa's agricultural output (â€Å"State of Food and Agriculture: Women in Agriculture† 3). The message essentially being conveyed here is that women who are given equal access to resources as men are will generate more food and be able to deal with food scarcity and poverty throughout their respective countries. As the Center for American Progress points out, 26. 5 percent of African women are poor compared to 22. 3 percent of African males (Cawthorne ). The societal benefits of poverty alleviation with integration of urban agriculture are great.Giving women the opportunity to work in a community- run garden where they can consume and sell foods gives them an occupation that empowers and insights them with knowledge. These women and children realize that they are helping the environment while improving their ownlivelihoods. Recreation provides physical and/or psychological relaxation, as well as act ivities where the poor an become educated about ecology, mentions an article on the reasons urban agriculture is important by the Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security (â€Å"Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security†) Foundation.The social impacts that revolve around women and children's participation in urban agriculture are a positive reason to enforce policies that will give them land for the creation of their own urban farms. The environmental benefits of urban agriculture are the alleviation of the costs surrounding transporting foods over long distances, ater-saving irrigation (reclaimed water), and composting materials to use as fertilizers instead of synthetic chemical fertilizers. Even with the amount of deforestation that has taken place worldwide, land is no longer suitable for agriculture.Of the 11 percent of our planet Earth that is suitable for agriculture, humans have destroyed 38 percent of it through poor natural resource mana gement practices (â€Å"Sustainable Agriculture†). Becoming good environmental stewards presents itself as humanities' last option. There is no longer enough land to provide food for the growing worldwide population. Cities will need to make use of urban agriculture to make up for this discrepancy. An overall adaptation towards organic rather than conventional methods of farming is the future of food production.With less conventional and more organic farming methods, the use of pesticides will decrease dramatically. Pesticides create harm both for wildlife and humans, as toxins seep into waterways and onto vegetation. â€Å"Overall public health and ecological integrity could be improved† through the adoption of organic, pesticide-free, farming practices, says David Pimentel, who is part of the Cornell Department of Entomology. Pimentel 573). Composting can be seen as an environmental benefit in urban green spaces because it provides the soil fertility that otherwise i s not present on old construction sites where growing operations are under way.The main benefit that composting brings to urban agriculture, according to Arne Saebo, is that â€Å"high-quality compost consists of many compounds that influence the biological processes in the soil positively, thus improving the physical and chemical soil characteristics (Saebo, and Ferrini 160). Reclaimed water – coming from treated waste water – will be an ffective way to rid of urban waste water and will save water that can be used for other reasons, such as drinking. 2 Local governmental policies need to implement these sustainable, environmentally-friendly practices into Durban's urban agriculture system, and enforce them.Urban agriculture is economically viable for civilians of South Africa for some key reasons. For one, urban agriculture in Nairobi consists of only one-third private residential land; this means that the other two-thirds of land where crops are grown in the city co nsists of â€Å"roadsides, riverbanks, and other publicly owned lands† (Romanik, 18). Clare T. Romanik, who works for the think tank Urban Institute, also notes in her article, An Urban-Rural Focus on the Food Markets in Africa, that urban agriculture has less means for the packaging, transportation, and storage of food (18).As noted in the social benefits of urban agriculture stated earlier, food security is a great benefit of growing food that can be both consumed and grown by the consumer; this is also an economically important benefit due to its aid against poverty. According to RUAF, Africa city-dwellers spend 50-70 percent of their income on food (â€Å"Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security†). Growing one's own vegetables in vacant lots or other creative places within Durban will allow tarmers to botn provide valuable vegetables tor their own consumption as well as for profit sales.People who oppose or are speculative of the implementation of ur ban agricultural practices contend that available land is decreasing as populations in cities rise. As these populations rise, people are taking the land in informal ways and purchasing rights are not easy to obtain (Romanik 35). Also, some people may be speculative of how organic and healthy the vegetables and fruits coming from these urban farmers truly are. These speculations can be resolved through strict legislative policies. One other concern regarding urban agriculture is the question surrounding if it will support growing cities with enough food.Mr. Pimentel observed a study of both organically-grown and conventionally-grown soybeans between 1981 and 2001. Respectively, the crops produced were 2461 and 2546 kilograms per hectare (Pimentel). As we see here, it is evident that growing food the organic way without powerful pesticides still provides close to the same yield as conventional farming. Investments in sustainable development need to occur, and uickly. Population press ures are continuously throwing wood on the fire that drives legislature and human minds to create new policies and ideas which are necessary to sustain life on earth for all its inhabitants.Investments should be made that incorporate money into the public sector to meet human and environmental needs. Urban agriculture will provide locally-grown, healthy food for members of Durban. A vast sum of money will be saved from paying for food imports if city-dwellers purchase their food from farmers markets and consume food from their own organic arms. For women and children, and society as a whole, urban agriculture will expedite development through invigorating a sense of community and education of ecological processes.Currently, the state of global trade is making life very difficult for those who do not earn a living wage. Locally-grown foods will bring food and money to those who are impoverished. Essentially, I write this as an alert, an invigoration of awareness, that there is a prob lem of people suffering in South Africa who need food. Solutions to food security and hunger are available: it is within egislatures hands to create policies that allow for city-wide composting, the management of public green spaces, and the development of self-sufficient ways of life for all.

The difference between USA and New Zealand's special education Research Paper

The difference between USA and New Zealand's special education - Research Paper Example "In New Zealand, the Ministry of Education, Special Education (GSE) is responsible at national, regional and district level for strengthening the Ministry of Education’s overall special education direction and for providing special education services to children and young people with educational, social, behavioral, and communication needs.(education counts)This system has been established on the basis of United States of America. The USA is one of those countries that have been an initiator of such programs thus following its footsteps New Zealand has developed its Special education policy. Both these countries lay immense stress on the propagation of education hence free education is provided to all dwelling within the region. Furthermore, the teachers who assist these children which special needs are also provided with pieces of training that are specifically designed according to the task they are responsible to perform. "In the United States of America, state-licensing sy stems set entry-level standards for special education professionals."(Farrell, 2009) A lot has been done in both countries to give such children with equal status hence some schools also provide education to special children in the same environment as normal students so that they get the same status and normal students learn to respect and value people with disabilities.The United States of America has made it a condition for all the states to provide standardized special education to all individuals.... USA is one of those countries that have been an initiator to such programs thus following its footsteps New Zealand has developed it Special education policy. Both these countries lay immense stress on the propagation of education hence free education is provided to all dwelling within the region. Furthermore the teachers who assist these children which special needs are also provided with trainings that are specifically designed according to the task they are responsible to perform. "In the  United States  of  America, state-licensing systems set entry-level standards for  special education  professionals."(Farrell, 2009) A lot has been done in both countries to give such children with equal status hence some schools also provide education to special children in the same environment as normal students so that they get the same status and normal students learn to respect and value people with disabilities. The United States of America has made it a condition for all the sta tes to provide standardized special education to all individuals. (Latham, 2008) Those who fail to do so will not be provided funds by the federal government. One of the most important efforts by the government of America to provide quality, free and equal education to these children is that a team is established which meets the child's parent in order to evaluate and determine the educational needs of the child. Furthermore it is there task to design courses according to their needs, perform placement tests, modify the program, organize counseling programs and cater to any other requirement that the child might have. Also it is the requirement of every school to meet up to the individualized education program IEP and report to the federal state about its implementation.

Most important events in the history of Los Angeles Essay

Most important events in the history of Los Angeles - Essay Example The main objective of the report is to be able to present certain events in the history of the city of Los Angeles to achieve the present condition of economy and social status that it has now. One of the important events in the history of Los Angeles is the discovery of oil credited to Edward L. Doheny in 1892. Although prior to the said event there are indications of the knowledge of the people and settlers regarding the said deposit, Doheny is responsible for making the deposit known. The said event initialized the economic growth of the city when a large number of oil companies decided to invest and settle in the city limits if Los Angeles (La Botz 41). The importance of the said even lies on the significance of oil in the economy of the city. From the onset of the oil industry in Los Angeles, a number of other industries started to develop and helped the state of economy of the city. Another even that can be considered important in the history of the city of Los Angeles is the establishment of the Pacific Electric Railway. Through the said mode of transportation, the economic transactions and works of people are accomplished in a shorter period of time. In addition, being one of the basic necessities for traveling, the said form of public transportation aid the socio-economic state to improve. The Pacific Electric Railway covers the Southern California area in the 1920’s, connecting Los Angeles and Orange Counties (Henstell 13). Another event that can be considered to improve the economy of the city of Los Angeles is the establishment of the harbor in 1907-1909. The said even ushered the rise of related industries such as fishing, canneries, oil drilling and shipbuilding. These industries resulted in the improvement of commerce in the city specifically due to the fact that harbors are major sites of trading activities. The increasing number of related industries can also be considered in the increase in the

Why M&A's failure is a topic of key strategic relevance Dissertation

Why M&A's failure is a topic of key strategic relevance - Dissertation Example On the other hand, external factors include the actual market condition where the cross border mergers and acquisition took place, the actual market competition that happens within the industry level, and the role of government intervention through policies and regulations. Specifically the case of SAIC was unique as compared to the British Aerospace (BAe), BMW and Phoenix Consortium is because the company decided to create business alliance with MG Rover through joint-venture method rather than acquisition method. Since SAIC agreed to enter into joint-venture arrangement with MG Rover, the company (SAIC) was able to free itself from the risk of having to share MG Rover’s debt obligations. Table of Contents Executive Summary ................................................................ 2 Table of Contents .................................................................... 3 I. Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5 a. Case Study Overview ............................................... 6 a.1 Historical Background of MG Rover †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 6 a.... .................................................. 14 III. Research Methodology †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 17 a. Primary Research Method †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.....†¦.. 17 a.1 Target Interviewees ........................†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 20 a.2 Site of the Research Study †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 21 b. Secondary Research Method †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦......... 21 IV. Research Findings and Analysis †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 22 a. Internal Factors that Promotes a Failed Merger and Acquisition ............................................ 23 a.1 Unclear or Undefined Organizational Vision and Mission ..................................... 23 a.2 The Presence of Cultural Clashes Resulting to Organizational Miscommunication ..................................... 24 a.4 Lack of Business Integration ...................... 26 b. External Factors that Promotes a Failed Merger and Acquisition ............................................ 29 b.1 Market Condition ........................................ 30 b.2 Market Competition within the Industry ...... 31 b.3 Government Policies and Regulations ....... 33 V. Conclusion and Recommendations †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 36 a. Conclusion .............................................................. 36 a.1 MG Rover and the British Aerospace (BAe) . 36 a.2 MG Rover and BMW ................................... 38 a.3 MG Rover and Phoenix .............................. 41 a.4 MG Rover and SAIC ................................... 44 b. Recommendations ............................................. 44 Appendix I – Historical Timeline of MG Rover †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 47 Appendix II – Semi-Structured Interview Questionnaire †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 48 Appendix III – Reasons why BAe, BMW,

Alleviating Depression in Cancer Patients Assignment

Alleviating Depression in Cancer Patients - Assignment Example The depression interferes with the entire body of an individual and impacts heavily on one’s daily routine and quality of life. Depression instigates a feeling of hopelessness and despair and has its effects on both men and women alike with little or no noted disparities for the different genders; this is in regard to its severity and prevalence effects (Hopko & Lejuez, 2007). In most cases when a patient is diagnosed with cancer, thoughts of fear and despair are experienced almost immediately. During the treatment and/or post-treatment stages, depression becomes an important component in a patient’s recovery. The depression determines the after-effects of cancer and also has an influential ability to dissuade a patient from participating in a treatment program. Depression causes impairment to the normal body functions and a disruption to the psychological makeup of a person and in extreme cases might be an impediment to treatment plans for the patients (Hopko & Lejuez, 2007). Depression impacts both on the patients diagnosed with cancer and to their respective families. These groups of people, both patients and their families faced with a cancer diagnosis; undergo varying degrees of emotional breakdowns and its associated stress. Children and spouses alike get traumatized with the invasion of cancer and its effects, and this has been a major contributor to the behavioral changes in such children (Yeung, 2007).

Marketing Management Outline Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marketing Management - Outline Example It is highly essential to understand the needs and the preferences of the customers and this is done by integrating brand strategies. Having a strong brand is invaluable since it is a promise to the customer and today branding has become a foundation for every company in marketing communication. (Kashani & Turpin 1999). Reasons why companies develop their core products into brands 1. Memorability – a brand name serves as a source of reputation for the company and besides an effective company name it also helps in reinforcing the identity to the customers which further makes them do more business with the company. It comes with a distinctive behavior or a unique color combination. 2. Loyalty – customers are more likely to purchase a brand with which they have positive association and experiences and the customers who are bonded with a brand also purchase other items sold by the same brand. 3. Familiarity – branding also has an impact on the people who are not the customers of the company and familiarity induces liking because of which people often recommend a brand to other people also. 4. Premium price and age - instead of dealing with price-shoppers, there are always buyers available who are willing to pay more for a brand compared to its competitors. 5. Extensions – a brand name which is well known amongst the people can also be used to sell new products. 6. Equity of the company rises – a company that sells branded products is sold at a higher price than the other companies that sell non-branded products and services. 7. Marketing expenses are low – money is always required to create a brand but once it is created, marketing expenses eventually reduce. 8. Lower risk for consumers – people often choose a branded product over a non-branded product when making a purchase decision. Brand valuation methods A number of brand valuation methods are used by the companies and every method has its own advantages and disa dvantages. Some of the main brand valuation methods are mentioned below. Income based brand valuation methods 1. Relief from royalty method – this method is based on the amount the owner would have to pay in order to get the brand licensed by a third party. In order to capitalize the future branded cash flows, discounted cash flow analysis is used. 2. Excess-earnings method:Â  earnings above profit are calculated to attract investors on the basis of the value of the assets while the excess amount is attributed towards the brand. 3. Price premium method:Â  this method of brand valuation

Value and Meaning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Value and Meaning - Essay Example Nozick also states that as human beings, we are always looking for a way to find unity and value and to make ourselves and our lives valuable. He says that we also want our lives and ourselves to have this organic unity (165). He says that the diversity comes to us from us wanting to do a myriad of things with our lives and to take in many different ideas and activities. This means that some of us will have meaning from things that are intrinsic to our selves (e.g. deep meaning within us) while others will see value and meaning in those things that are outside ourselves. Value can have many meanings. Nozick suggests that value is something intrinsic in an individual or in a thing. Value is within someones own boundaries while meaning is something that is connected beyond the specific boundaries that people have within their lives (166). He suggests that meaning is limited by the way that people think of it. People are concerned that meaning has limits and therefore it does. This translates to people thinking that their lives are limited. In order to actually find true meaning for someones life they must understand that there are no limits and that they can do whatever they want in order for their life to have the meaning that they seek (166). However, meaning can also be integrated into value if we connect with things that we also feel are important to us. He says that we also see limitations because we know that we will ultimately die and this will be the ending of us. Even the universe will eventually change its form by dying in some sort of massi ve heat, which ultimately brings its destruction. In my opinion, it is difficult to get past the limitations that we set in our lives because of this believe that things must be limited. A lot of self-help books and other materials state that we are not limited and we have only to understand this so that we can live a life of abundance and prosperity; the challenge is that most people do not believe

Surreal (subject is hair and make up) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Surreal (subject is hair and make up) - Essay Example This unorthodox artistic style is applied to a perception of how hair trends may be in the future, but the distortion and exaggeration incorporated into the hair style is an attempt to drive the viewer beyond what is traditional and familiar. The viewer’s sentiment may range anywhere from surprise or delight, to perplexity and even confusion, and in the extreme even a strong dislike or disgust. This type of artistic style is disturbing to many, and not a few will decide that they find it unacceptable and for being vulgar and boorish. Many famous artists are not appreciated during their lifetimes; their creations are mocked and derided, and this is not difficult to imagine in the case of Modigliani and other avant-garde artists. People could not understand the artist’s vision and his concept of reality, at least during his lifetime, because contemporaries are exposed to the same environment, and being exposed to the same context, the normal expectation is to perceive things in the same context. However, a good artist is ahead of his time, and he sees things beyond the context of his contemporaries. In most cases, visionary art is ignored during the artist’s lifetime, but appreciated by succeeding generations, so it is only after the artist’s death and when many of his works have been destroyed, lost or scattered, that the pieces of art become valued, even priceless. It is thus a pity that while the artist lives, his philosophy conveyed through his art and lifestyle are lost to oblivion, only to resurface later on and accorded the value it truly deserves. It is this timeless element of Modigliani’s distortion and exaggeration that I wish to capture and translate to a fashion statement for the future. The distortion and exaggeration works to enhance that element in the artist’s vision that escapes and is lost to the everyday observer, and the emphasis is to draw the ordinary person’s

Ideal Non Profit Organzation Essay Example for Free

Ideal Non Profit Organzation Essay My ideal non-profit organization would encompass the idea of enabling people from anywhere to have access to a free world-class education. My mission is to empower young people around the world in developing countries with the education and training they need to build a life of prosperity and opportunity. I envision a world of opportunity, where educated minds and skillful hands work together to uplift the next generation, breaking the cycle of poverty. By empowering young people with education, we are able to unlock the potential of an entire generation. I believe education is the world’s most powerful tool in fighting global prosperity. This organization is structured through student lending programs. We are going to have available to you stories from different people all across the world. You have to pick a story that inspires you the most and you already are taking the first step in making a difference in their lives. Once you have found a student you want to support, the next step is to make a loan. Before distributing a loan to a student however, we will verify that the student has been accepted to an academic institution and that he or she has a record of strong academic performance. Each loan gives the student a chance to achieve their dreams while learning the skills they need to help their families and transform their communities. One-hundred percent of the loan goes directly to the student you want to support. Once a student receives your loan, the student can then go through school and acquire the necessary education for their dream career. After receiving the required education and graduating, your loan will be refunded fully by the student. Each student has an individual repayment schedule that is tailored to his or her needs. Every month, as a student makes repayments, we deposit the money into an account you would have created with our website. We would operate on contributions from organizations and people just like you. Your donations help this organization expand to new countries and build new programs all over the world so that we may reach more students. Your donation would be greatly appreciated to give a student in the developing world with the education they need to graduate beyond poverty. Our organization’s goal is to help 1,000,000 students in countries to earn their degrees by 2020. Your donation allows 100% of all loans to go directly to the students. We will use every donation and dollar we receive to its upmost greatest impact in benefiting the students. Teachers, nurses, accountants, engineers, these are the young people who will change the world. Only education can make it possible. .

The relationship between childhood neglect and later Essay Example for Free

The relationship between childhood neglect and later Essay In examining the relationship between childhood neglect and later use of illicit drugs, the following variables will have to be taken into account: Childhood – It is the time or state of being a child which is the period between infancy and pubescence. It is a crucial period in a person’s life since it is at this stage where most of the physical and mental development of a child takes place.   It is also at this stage where the child learns the difference between good and bad behavior. Later use – this pertains to a reaction. The principle is that for every action there is a corresponding reaction.   For purpose of this research childhood neglect is considered as an action and the use of illicit drugs during the later stages of the child’s life is considered as the reaction. Illicit drugs – these are drugs the use of which is rendered illegal by existing laws because of their harmful effects to the user. These drugs include cannabis such as marijuana and hashish, opiates such as heroin, stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines and hallucinogens. Parental neglect – an act or omission of a parent or any person exercising substitute parental authority which is classified as a crime because it endangers the health and life of a child. It includes failure to provide for the child’s food, clothing and medical needs.   It also includes the act of leaving the child alone without anyone that can provide for the needs previously mentioned.   It its extreme form it may also include subjecting the child to physical and emotional abuse.   For purpose of this research, the following variables will be operationally defined as follows: Childhood – The participants of this research will be persons between the ages of 13-25.   They will be asked to recollect and reveal whether they are presently using illicit drugs and whether they experienced parental neglect during their childhood years.   For this purpose, they will be asked to make a recollection whether they experienced neglect between the ages of 5 to 12. Later use – The participants of this research will be asked whether they are presently using illicit drugs and the reasons why they use illicit drugs.   Their present problems involving drug use will then be connected to the participants’ past history of parental neglect.   For this purpose the subjects of this research will be limited to ages between 13-25. Illicit drugs – This concept will have same definition as the above.   For purpose of this research, the respondents will be asked to identify the kind of drugs they use and the age when they started using these illicit drugs.   The respondents will be asked to determine the reason/s why they started using illegal drugs. Parental neglect – The respondents will be asked whether they experienced neglect during their childhood and to describe the kind of relationship they have with their parents or whether they have positive or negative relationship with their parents.   If they have negative relationship with their parents, a follow up question will be asked whether the participants have been subjected to physical, verbal or sexual abuse.

Understanding Fatigue and the Implications for Worker Safety

Understanding Fatigue and the Implications for Worker Safety Introduction Workplace safety requires a systematic approach that includes an understanding of risk factors and identification of hazards. Worker fatigue has been identified as a risk factor for both acute and cumulative injuries. Fatigue and incomplete recovery can lead to decreased capacity that can result in an increased risk of injury and a decline in work efficiency (Kumar 2001, de Looze, Bosch, and van Dieà «n 2009, Visser and van Dieà «n 2006). In addition, fatigue contributes to accidents, injuries and death (Williamson et al. 2011). Over $300 million in lost productivity time in US workplaces can be tied to fatigue. Significantly reducing the incidence of fatigue-induced workplace injuries and lost productivity depends on the accurate and timely detection of fatigue to allow for appropriate intervention. Although the term fatigue is commonly used, it has come to refer to many concepts in occupational safety and health. In order to manage and mitigate fatigue and the associated risks, it is essential to understand the different types and components. Fatigue is generally accepted as resulting in the impairment of capacity or performance as a result of work. However, fatigue is multidimensional, either acute or chronic, whole body or muscle level, physical or mental, central or peripheral. In addition, it includes a decline in objective performance, as well as perceptions of fatigue. Of added importance are the roles of sleep and circadian function. Each of these aspects of fatigue do not occur in isolation, but interact to modify worker capacity and injury risk. Both mental and physical fatigue can result in poor decision making, which may result in an acute injury (Williamson et al. 2011). The risk of injury is dependent on both the injury mechanism and the characteristics of the work being performed. Parameters of importance in the development of fatigue, and subsequent risk, include the length of time-on-task between breaks, work pace, and the timing of rest breaks (Williamson et al. 2011). Researchers have postulated that through delineation of the quantitative details of relevant variables, appropriate interventions and injury control can be developed (Kumar 2001). How to best quantify workplace conditions, particularly physical exposures experienced by the worker, remains an open research question (Kim and Nussbaum 2012). Current approaches to fatigue monitoring and detection often rely either on fitness-for-duty tests to determine whether the worker has sufficient capacity prior to start work, monitoring of sleep habits, or intrusive monitoring of brain activation (using electroencephalography (EEG)) (Balkin et al. 2011) or changes in local muscle fatigue (using electromyography (EMG)) (Dong, Ugaldey, and El Saddik 2014). While there is no single standard measurement of fatigue, there are numerous subjective measurement scales and objective measurement techniques that can be adapted for workplace use. Recent advances in wearable technologies also present an opportun ity for real-time and in-the-field assessment of fatigue development. Why should we care about fatigue? Fatigue in the workplace is often described as a multidimensional process, which results in a diminishing of worker performance. It results from prolonged activity, and is associated with psychological, socioeconomic and environmental factors (Barker and Nussbaum 2011, Yung 2016). From an occupational health and safety perspective, fatigue must be managed and controlled since it has significant short-term and long-term implications. In the short-term, fatigue can result in discomfort, diminished motor control, and reduced strength capacity (Bjà ¶rklund et al. 2000, Cà ´tà © et al. 2005, Huysmans et al. 2010). These effects might lead to reduced performance, lowered productivity, deficits in work quality, and increased incidence of accidents and human errors (Yung 2016). Fatigue can also result in longer term adverse health outcomes, including, e.g., chronic fatigue syndrome (Yung 2016) and reduced immune function (Kajimoto 2008). It can be seen as a precursor to work-related muscu loskeletal disorders (WMSDs) (Iridiastadi and Nussbaum 2006). These outcomes have been associated with future morbidity and mortality, work disability, occupational accidents, increased absenteeism, increased presenteeism, unemployment, reduced quality of life, and disruptive effects on social relationships and activities (Yung 2016). The safety impacts of fatigue are best evidenced in the transportation domain. In the U.S., an estimated 32,675 people died in motor vehicle crashes in 2014 (2015a). In 2013 there were 342,000 reported truck crashes that resulted in 3,964 fatalities and ~95,000 injuries (2015b). While these crashes often result from several factors, it is estimated that driver-related factors are the leading cause for 75-90% of fatal/injury-inducing crashes (Craye et al. 2015, Stanton and Salmon 2009, Medina et al. 2004, Lal and Craig 2001). The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that about 20% of all crashes are fatigue-related (Strohl et al. 1998) and 60% of fatal truck crashes can be attributed to the driver falling asleep while driving (Craye et al. 2015). Drowsy driving increases crash risk by 600% over normal driving (Klauer et al. 2006). For many years, a succinct definition of fatigue has been sought after (Aaronson et al. 1999). In our estimation, there is no simple and standard definition for fatigue. For example, our statement above: Fatigue in the workplace is often described as a multidimensional process, which results in a diminishing of worker performance, while true, is not sufficient to describe fatigue, since there are many other conditions that may result in a diminished workers performance (e.g., motivation). Perhaps, more importantly, there are several other factors that impact our ability to determine one standard definition: Workplace fatigue development mechanisms differ significantly according to the occupation type. For example, in manufacturing, the focus is typically on physical/muscle fatigue or related to the shift schedule, and in transportation drowsiness and sleepiness are often the root-causes for driver fatigue. Given the complexity of the human body, a single mechanism unlikely explains fatigue under all conditions, even for a single task and fatigue type (i.e. muscle fatigue) (Weir et al. 2006). No one definition can explain the complex interactions between biological processes, behavior, and psychological phenomena (Aaronson et al. 1999). It is unlikely that a single theory can be used to explain all observations of performance deterioration (Weir et al. 2006). Thus, we cannot provide a single definition of fatigue in this paper. Instead we refer the reader to Yung (2016, p.14) for a summary of multiple example fatigue definitions from various domains. Measuring and Quantifying Fatigue In this section, we divide how fatigue is measured according to cognitive and physical functions respectively. Talk about PVT and reaction time as the main standards for sleep-related fatigue There are several important cognitive characteristics that are typically assed in the context of fatigue. These include: a) arousal, b) alertness/ attention, c) cognitive control, d) motivation, and e) stress. Arousal is commonly measured in transportation safety studies since it aims at assessing sleep deprivation, an important root-cause for trucking crashes (especially at night) (Philip et al. 2005, Strohl et al. 1998). Measures of arousal include heart rate, electrodermal response (EDR), pupil dilation and self-report questionnaires (Yung 2016). Alertness and attention are important in translating sensory and work-related inputs into actionable items. They can be measured using gaze direction, EEG, validated scales, and questionnaires. The third characteristic, cognitive control, has to do with the time taken to process information, and thus, reaction time is perhaps the most commonly used measure for evaluating it. The fourth characteristic is perhaps the hardest to measure sinc e motivation cannot be assessed except through questionnaires and validated scales. Stress can be assessed through a number of measures which include heart rate variability, blood pressure and body postures (Yung 2016). The reader should note that the measures for quantifying mental fatigue include intrusive monitoring systems (e.g. EEG and blood pressure monitoring systems), non-intrusive measures (camera systems to detect gaze direction), and somewhat subjective measures (questionnaires and scales). Table 1 provides a summary of physiological and physical indicators of fatigue. Table 1: Typical Physiological and Physical Indicators of Fatigue Development Measurement Direction of Change with Fatigue Heart rate Increases with physical fatigue Heart rate variability Decreases with mental fatigue (for root-mean square of the successive differences (RMSSD)) Increased Low Frequency / High Frequency (LF/HF) power ratio Electromyography Decrease in mean power frequency Increase in root mean square amplitude Strength Decrease in maximum exertion Tremor Increase in physiological and postural tremor Pupil dilation Increases with mental fatigue and drowsiness Blink rate Increased percentage eyelid closure over the pupil, over time (PERCLOS) Reaction time Increased reaction time and lapses (using psychomotor vigilance task (PVT)) Performance Increase in errors and task completion time Force variability Increase in variability with physical fatigue Subjective assessment Increase in ratings of discomfort and fatigue On the physical side, electromyography is one of the most commonly used evaluation tools for muscle fatigue in a laboratory setting. The gold standard is to detect cellular and metabolic changes through blood sampling techniques (Garde, Hansen, and Jensen 2003). Since these approaches are intrusive, some researchers attempt to detect symptoms of physical fatigue. These symptoms include an impairment in postural control (Davidson, Madigan, and Nussbaum 2004), increased sway (Davidson, Madigan, and Nussbaum 2004), and joint angle variability (Madigan, Davidson, and Nussbaum 2006). Additional symptoms include an increase in exerted force variability (Svendson et al. 2010) and increased tremor (Lippold 1981). Note that these symptoms can be observed through the use of check sheets, visual inspection (manual and/or through cameras), and self-reported questionnaires among other tools. In our estimation, most methods described above are of limited use in practice since they are either invasive (and will be resisted by individuals/unions) or rely on visual inspection performed by an observer. Perhaps, more importantly, each observational and measurement technique also focuses primarily on one main risk factor, such as posture or force, or a combined set of factors but for a repetitive task, such as the NIOSH work practices guide (Waters et al. 1993). This fails to capture the interactive nature of many fatigue precursors as well as the variability of the work performed. In addition, these methods do not take into account the characteristics of the individual, beyond general anthropometric and demographic attributes, such as height and age. One important consideration is that the application of these methods in field studies and practice have also been limited by the question: can we detect if fatigue (or its symptoms) has occurred? Note that this question is binary with a yes/no answer. However, it is well understood that fatigue is a process that occurs as a function of loading, time and exertion and is not an end point. From a safety perspective, a more interesting question is: Can we predict when fatigue will occur for a given worker based on their schedule, environment and job tasks? If this can be done, then fatigue management will progress from a reactive state (equivalent of the personal protective equipment state in traditional hazard control theory) to higher/safer levels of engineering controls, substitution and/or perhaps elimination through modeling and scheduling. The increasing availability of pervasive sensing technologies, including wearable devices, combined with the digitization of health information has the potential to provide the necessary monitoring, recording, and communication of individuals physical and environmental exposures to address this question (Kim and Nussbaum 2012, Vignais et al. 2013). In the following section, we describe some of the research and commercially available products that are used for predicting/monitoring fatigue development. Predicting Fatigue Development Models for fatigue development are not new, but the existing models are often incomplete. Models for predicting/understanding how humans fatigue have received significant attention over the past few decades in the fields of aviation, driving, mining, and professional athletics. In the transportation areas (i.e. aviation and driving), the models originated from efforts to model the underlying relationships between sleep regulation and circadian dynamics (Dinges 2004). Dinges (2004) present a survey of the biomathematical models used in this area. There are also some surveys on driver fatigue detection models, see e.g. Wang et al. (2006). However, based on our interactions with one of the larger trucking companies in the U.S., these models do not offer answers to the following question: Given the massive data collected on each truck that include indirect indicators of fatigue, e.g. lane departures and hard brakes, and individual characteristics of each driver, can we predict how each driver will fatigue for a given assignment, traffic condition and weather profile? With the advent of big data, this is the direction that is needed for fatigue development in the trucking industry. One can make parallels for aviation and military applications. In mining, there are commercially available products that claim to predict fatigue among mine workers. The authors did not have the chance to test these products and thus, we cannot verify/validate these claims. However, if true, this system will be a significant contribution to mining safety. Based on the above discussion, there are several important observations to be made. First, there has not been much independent research verifying the claims made for any commercial products. Thus, practitioners should use them with caution and in tandem with their current safety methods. Second, there have been only limited attempts to perform inter-disciplinary research in fatigue development. Thus, the current approaches are domain-dependent and are often incomplete since they consider only a few precursors. There needs to be a systematic move towards utilizing big data analytics as a mechanism to harness the massive amounts of data that is being captured on our equipment, workers, etc. The research challenge is to ensure that we are asking the right questions prior to considering what the technology can (or cannot) provide. Third, it is somewhat inexplicable that the manufacturing safety community is significantly behind other safety domains. We believe that there is a significant opportunity for both researchers and practitioners in examining how other disciplines are managing fatigue. General Strategies for Fatigue Management and Mitigation There are several somewhat recent publications that detail how to manage physical and/or mental fatigue indicators (Hartley and Commission 2000, Caldwell, Caldwell, and Schmidt 2008, Williamson et al. 2011, Williamson and Friswell 2013). These studies have presented the typical hazard control recommendations, which include administrative and engineering controls that can reduce/mitigate the development of fatigue. Practitioners should also consult the documentation from Transport Canada on Developing and Implementing a Fatigue Risk Management System (https://www.tc.gc.ca/media/documents/ca-standards/14575e.pdf). Typical interventions include: rest (for physical fatigue), sleep (for alertness), modified work-rest schedules, and limits on the cumulative hours worked in a week (or shift changes). While these strategies are effective for population averages/overall, they do not address the weakest link in the workforce (i.e. those most likely to fatigue and/or get injured). We see much w ork needed in this area. Concluding Remarks In this paper, we have provided an overview of some of the current issues in fatigue detection/ management research and practice. Based on our review of the literature, we offer the following advice to safety professionals: Transportation Safety Professionals: There is a significant body of research that highlights the impact of lack of sleep (e.g. from sleep apnea and/or scheduling), night driving, weather (e.g. cloudy or rainy), and work-rest schedules on fatigue development. In general, less sleep, night driving, bad weather and frequent changes in the work-rest schedule are more detrimental to transportation safety. To mitigate these risks, the routing/scheduling can be modified to alleviate some of these precursors. In addition, wearable sensors and on-vehicle systems (e.g. lane departure and hard brake detection sensors) can provide real-time indicators of fatigue development in driving. The data from these sensors can be used through simple dashboards that provide the dispatcher with information on which drivers are at risk. The dispatcher can then force these drivers to rest if fatigued (and sleep in-cabin at a truck stop if necessary) since a short break/nap can help mitigate these effects. Manufacturing Safety Professionals: Fatigue has been shown to be a precursor to risky behaviors and long-term injuries. It is also associated with a diminished performance and, therefore, can result in significant quality problems. Based on our discussion with several safety managers from large automotive companies, we have learned that it is often easier to sell safety projects to upper management when it is combined with quality improvement initiatives. The rationale is simple to management since they can see a return on investment (ROI) on these projects when compared to a softer objective (reducing/eliminating the probability of a safety problem that has not occurred before). In addition, we challenge practitioners to categorize their at-risk populations (e.g. unexperienced workers, obese and/or elder workers, etc.). These workers cannot be modeled by existing ergonomics and safety models that consider an average worker. Thus, a dashboard and sensors that monitor their absenteeis m, quality of their work and/or complaints can be used to trigger appropriate interventions. Mining Safety Researchers: The technology with fatigue monitoring (and more general safety) in mining has evolved significantly over the past decade. There are several commercial products that allow for active monitoring, scheduling, and equipment safety checks. To our knowledge, at least one major equipment manufacturer has released a safety systems suite that incorporates all these data sources to present a clear picture of a workers fatigue and distraction risk. We did not test the validity of these claims and therefore, we ask safety practitioners to ask for system demos and ensure that this particular system meets their needs. A word of caution: fatigue detection systems do not mitigate and/or eliminate fatigue. In addition, we urge safety professionals to embrace the role of technology and its potential to redefine safety from a one system fits all to an individualized approach. For researchers and educators, we believe that there is a sufficient body of literature that suggests that our community is headed to individualized safety models. To develop these models, there needs to be an emphasis on managing large amounts of data, revisiting our old models and ensuring that we can offer data-driven interventions for safety/ergonomics problems. In essence, our field is moving towards individualized models and evidence-based interventions. Acknowledgments This research was partially supported by the American Society for Safety Engineers (ASSE) Foundation grant titled ASSIST: Advancing Safety Surveillance using Individualized Sensor Technology. Bibliography 2015a. Crash Stats: Early Estimate of Motor Vehicle Traffic Fatalities in 2014. edited by U.S. Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Adminstration. Washington, DC: NHTSAs National Center for Statistics and Analysis. 2015b. Large Trucks: 2013 Data (Traffic Safety Facts. DOT HS 812 150). National Center for Statistics and Analysis, accessed 06/01. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/812150.pdf. Aaronson, Lauren S, Cynthia S Teel, Virginia Cassmeyer, Geri B Neuberger, Leonie Pallikkathayil, Janet Pierce, Allan N Press, Phoebe D Williams, and Anita Wingate. 1999. Defining and measuring fatigue. Image: the journal of nursing scholarship 31 (1):45-50. Balkin, Thomas J., William J. Horrey, R. Curtis Graeber, Charles A. Czeisler, and David F. Dinges. 2011. The challenges and opportunities of technological approaches to fatigue management. Accident Analysis Prevention 43 (2):565-572. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.12.006. Barker, L. M., and M. A. Nussbaum. 2011. The effects of fatigue on performance in simulated nursing work. Ergonomics 54 (9):815-29. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2011.597878. Bjà ¶rklund, Martin, Albert G Crenshaw, Mats Djupsjà ¶backa, and Hà ¥kan Johansson. 2000. Position sense acuity is diminished following repetitive low-intensity work to fatigue in a simulated occupational setting. European journal of applied physiology 81 (5):361-367. Caldwell, John A, J Lynn Caldwell, and Regina M Schmidt. 2008. Alertness management strategies for operational contexts. Sleep medicine reviews 12 (4):257-273. Cà ´tà ©, Julie N, Denis Raymond, Pierre A Mathieu, Anatol G Feldman, and Mindy F Levin. 2005. Differences in multi-joint kinematic patterns of repetitive hammering in healthy, fatigued and shoulder-injured individuals. Clinical Biomechanics 20 (6):581-590. Craye, Cà ©line, Abdullah Rashwan, Mohamed S. Kamel, and Fakhri Karray. 2015. A Multi-Modal Driver Fatigue and Distraction Assessment System. International Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems Research:1-22. doi: 10.1007/s13177-015-0112-9. Davidson, Bradley S, Michael L Madigan, and Maury A Nussbaum. 2004. Effects of lumbar extensor fatigue and fatigue rate on postural sway. European Journal of Applied Physiology 93 (1-2):183-189. de Looze, Michiel, Tim Bosch, and Jaap van Dieà «n. 2009. Manifestations of shoulder fatigue in prolonged activities involving low-force contractions. Ergonomics 52 (4):428-437. doi: 10.1080/00140130802707709. Dinges, David F. 2004. Critical Research Issues in Development of Biomathematical Models of Fatigue and Performance. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 75 (3):A181-A191. Dong, Haiwei, Izaskun Ugaldey, and Abdulmotaleb El Saddik. 2014. Development of a fatigue-tracking system for monitoring human body movement. Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC) Proceedings, 2014 IEEE International, 12-15 May 2014. Garde, A Helene, Ã…se M Hansen, and Bente R Jensen. 2003. Physiological responses to four hours of low-level repetitive work. Scandinavian journal of work, environment health:452-460. Hartley, Laurence, and National Road Transport Commission. 2000. Review of fatigue detection and prediction technologies: National Road Transport Commission Melbourne. Huysmans, Maaike A, Marco JM Hoozemans, Allard J van der Beek, Michiel P de Looze, and Jaap H van Dieà «n. 2010. Position sense acuity of the upper extremity and tracking performance in subjects with non-specific neck and upper extremity pain and healthy controls. Journal of rehabilitation medicine 42 (9):876-883. Iridiastadi, H, and MA Nussbaum. 2006. Muscle fatigue and endurance during repetitive intermittent static efforts: development of prediction models. Ergonomics 49 (4):344-360. Kajimoto, Osami. 2008. Development of a method of evaluation of fatigue and its economic impacts. In Fatigue Science for Human Health, 33-46. Springer. Kim, Sunwook, and Maury A. Nussbaum. 2012. Performance evaluation of a wearable inertial motion capture system for capturing physical exposures during manual material handling tasks. Ergonomics 56 (2):314-326. doi: 10.1080/00140139.2012.742932. Klauer, Sheila G, Thomas A Dingus, Vicki L Neale, Jeremy D Sudweeks, and David J Ramsey. 2006. The impact of driver inattention on near-crash/crash risk: An analysis using the 100-car naturalistic driving study data. Washington, DC. Kumar, Shrawan. 2001. Theories of musculoskeletal injury causation. Ergonomics 44 (1):17-47. doi: 10.1080/00140130120716. Lal, Saroj K. L., and Ashley Craig. 2001. A critical review of the psychophysiology of driver fatigue. Biological Psychology 55 (3):173-194. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0511(00)00085-5. Lippold, OCJ. 1981. The tremor in fatigue. In Human muscle fatigue: Physiological mechanisms, 234-248. Pitman Medical London (CIBA Foundation symposium 82). Madigan, Michael L, Bradley S Davidson, and Maury A Nussbaum. 2006. Postural sway and joint kinematics during quiet standing are affected by lumbar extensor fatigue. Human movement science 25 (6):788-799. Medina, Alejandra L., Suzanne E. Lee, Walter W. Wierwille, and Richard J. Hanowski. 2004. Relationship between Infrastructure, Driver Error, and Critical Incidents. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting 48 (16):2075-2079. doi: 10.1177/154193120404801661. Philip, Pierre, Patricia Sagaspe, Nicholas Moore, Jacques Taillard, Andrà © Charles, Christian Guilleminault, and Bernard Bioulac. 2005. Fatigue, sleep restriction and driving performance. Accident Analysis Prevention 37 (3):473-478. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2004.07.007. Stanton, Neville A., and Paul M. Salmon. 2009. Human error taxonomies applied to driving: A generic driver error taxonomy and its implications for intelligent transport systems. Safety Science 47 (2):227-237. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2008.03.006. Strohl, KP, SL Merritt, J Blatt, AI Pack, F Council, and S Rogus. 1998. Drowsy driving and automobile crashes. nccdr/nhtsa expert panel on driver fatigue and sleepiness. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, accessed 01/25. http://www.nhtsa.gov/people/injury/drowsy_driving1/Drowsy.html. Vignais, Nicolas, Markus Miezal, Gabriele Bleser, Katharina Mura, Dominic Gorecky, and Frà ©dà ©ric Marin. 2013. Innovative system for real-time ergonomic feedback in industrial manufacturing. Applied Ergonomics 44 (4):566-574. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2012.11.008. Visser, Bart, and Jaap H. van Dieà «n. 2006. Pathophysiology of upper extremity muscle disorders. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 16 (1):1-16. doi: DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2005.06.005. Wang, Qiong, Jingyu Yang, Mingwu Ren, and Yujie Zheng. 2006. Driver fatigue detection: a survey. WCICA 2006: The Sixth World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation, Dalian, China. Waters, Thomas R., Vern Putz-Anderson, Arun Garg, and Lawrence J. Fine. 1993. Revised NIOSH equation for the design and evaluation of manual lifting tasks. Ergonomics 36 (7):749 776. Weir, JP, TW Beck, JT Cramer, and TJ Housh. 2006. Is fatigue all in your head? A critical review of the central governor model. British journal of sports medicine 40 (7):573-586. Williamson, Ann, and Rena Friswell. 2013. Fatigue in the workplace: causes and countermeasures. Fatigue: Biomedicine, Health Behavior 1 (1-2):81-98. doi: 10.1080/21641846.2012.744581. Williamson, Ann, David A. Lombardi, Simon Folkard, Jane Stutts, Theodore K. Courtney, and Jennie L. Connor. 2011. The link between fatigue and safety. Accident Analysis Prevention 43 (2):498-515. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2009.11.011. Yung, Marcus. 2016. Fatigue at the Workplace: Measurement and Temporal Development. PhD, Department of Kinesiology, University of Waterloo.

assisted suicide :: essays research papers

Assisted Suicide In 1997, Oregon became the only state allowing legal physician-assisted suicide (PAS). Although physician-assisted suicide has been legal in Oregon for four years, it remains highly controversial. PAS is when a doctor prescribes their patient to medication which would kill them. Patients must pass certain requirements in order to request a prescription for lethal medication. The patient must be 18 years or older, a resident of Oregon, able to make health care decisions, and diagnosed with a terminal illness that would lead to death within six months. After meeting these requirements patients are able to request a prescription for lethal medication from a licensed Oregon physician. To receive a prescription for lethal medication, the following steps must be completed: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The patient must make two oral requests to their physician, separated by at least 15 days. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The patient must provide a written request to their physician, signed with two witnesses present. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The doctor who prescribes the patient and another physician must confirm the diagnosis and prognosis. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If either physician believes the patient's judgment is impaired by a psychiatric or psychological disorder, the patient must take a psychological examination. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The physician must inform the patient of alternatives to assisted suicide. Such as comfort care, hospital care, and pain management. During 1998, 1999 and 2000, approximately 16, 27, and 27 patients used PAS. Patients who died by PAS were more educated than other Oregonians who did not choose to commit suicide and had similar illnesses. All the medications prescribed are barbiturates. A physician or anyone else can not directly administer medication to end another's life. In 2001, 44 doctors prescribed 33 patients to a medication that would end their life. In comparison, 39 prescriptions were written in 2000, 33 in 1999 and 24 in 1998. Although the number of prescriptions written for physician-assisted suicide has increased in the past four years, the number of ill patients taking lethal medication has stayed small with less than 1/10 of one percent of Oregonians dying by physician-assisted suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The reason I picked this topic is because I thought it was very interesting and also very controversial. I find it very interesting that Oregon is the only state that has physician-assisted suicide. I feel very strongly that if a person was in so much pain where they wanted to commit suicide, then it should be allowed. I also agree with the requirements a patient has to meet before being granted the prescription.

The Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, Cultra, Co. Down, Northern Ireland :: Observation Essays, Descriptive Essays

The Ulster Folk and Transport Museum, Cultra, Co. Down, Northern Ireland Monuments and museums are arenas of public history and for the formation and articulation of identities and narratives.[1] Decisions taken as to the formation of museums and the selection, display and organisation of exhibits are influenced by criteria which are not necessarily politically neutral; these may especially involve devices of political elites to emphasise aspects of communal togetherness and thus exert control over communities.[2] Memory and commemoration of past events and generations is by its nature a political and contested act, especially in sharply divided societies.[3] It is no surprise that recently established governments and states should particularly concern themselves with the production of such forms of festivities, commemorations, and monuments.[4] As rulers of a sharply divided society, unionist elites in Northern Ireland in the aftermath of its eventful creation in 1920-1 had particular reasons to concern themselves, and did concern themselves, with such s trategies of power.[5] The integration of the province's Catholic minority may have been, or may have been felt to be, beyond the rulers of Northern Ireland;[6] but this very fact heightened the importance of preserving the highest possible degree of political unity under unionist hegemony among the Protestant majority.[7] In this context, the opening of the Ulster Folk Museum, located in Cultra in County Down, Northern Ireland (and now linked to the Ulster Transport Museum), in 1964, might theoretically be seen as a strategy in the ongoing attempted maintenance of unionist hegemony and social control in Northern Ireland. This might especially be assumed in that the early 1960s were a time when pressure for reform in Northern Ireland was increasing, and when the governing unionist coalition was fracturing, partly under the strains of early deindustrialisation.[8] Such a tourist site might also be seen as a propagandistic effort to appeal for political support (or reduced political opposition) from those with ancestral links to Ulster and its â€Å"traditions† in the wider diaspora. There are however manifold reasons for thinking that it may be rather too tempting to exaggerate the political intentions behind the formation of such a museum at such a time. Foucauldian notions of the exertion of kn owledge-power over the human body have been rightly criticized (even when applied to more favourable contexts) in that they fail properly to address complicated questions of agency and the issue of in whose interest any given strategy was exerted.

Norma Rae and A Respectable Trade :: Films Movies

Norma Rae and A Respectable Trade In this essay I shall compare the two economic systems of capitalism and slavery within the context of films, Norma Rae and A Respectable Trade. In the film Norma Rae, workers in a textile mill attempt to form a union with the leadership of a disgruntled employee named Norma Rae. In a Respectable Trade, a woman of the aristocracy marries a slave trader named Josiah when she comes to realize that her time spent in her uncle's estate must come to an end due to the social aspirations of her aunt and that because she has no talent as a governess she has very few options left. This series, from the book of the same name, is about the relationship between her (Frances) and her slave, Mehuru from Oyo in addition to being about the several other interpersonal and economic relationships occurring within the system of slavery in 18th century Bristol. In Norma Rae, the equipment and other resources necessary for textile production in the town were owned by the textile company. The majority of the population did not have any control over the productive resources necessary for the development of enterprises. This is consistent with capitalism where there is a concentration of control over productive resources by a small subset of society, in this case the textile mill. In a Respectable Trade, the aristocracy had majority control over the means for production. It was only through them that the merchants could for example get the monetary means to expand business or start out if they were not fortunate enough to have inherited some means of trade as Josiah and Sara did. The common folk of Bristol, England did not control the means by which they could have started their own businesses. Here too, the control over productive resources is concentrated in the hands of the few. So we see that slavery shares this quality with capitali sm and as yet I have not cited any unique properties of these two class processes. One important and defining difference between the two though is that in slavery, human beings also constitute a productive resource that can be bought and sold and done with as one would a piece of furniture. Capitalist and Slave Economic Systems have singular ways of resolving the question of how to get workers to labor.

History and Philosophy of Science

General Studies Unit Kaduna State University, Kaduna Kaduna State, Nigeria GST 203 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE LECTURE NOTES COURSE INTRODUCTION:This course is designed with the objectives of not only educating students on the historical developments that have taken place in the fields of science and technology and the philosophical basis on which achievements were made but to stimulate discuss and interests in the minds of students irrespective of the course they offer in the University, it is understood that cross disciplinary exposures of students in this manner will enable them appreciate the need to think alike and work together especially that they are our future leaders.The end result is lifting our country to joining the elite nations of scientific and technologically developed societies. Man, His Origin and Nature Introduction The origin of man is based on the modern theory concerning the evolution of man which proposes that humans and apes derive from an apelike ances tor that lived on earth a few million years ago. The theory states that man, through a combination of environmental and genetic factors, emerged as a species to produce the variety of ethnicities seen today, while modern apes evolved on a separate evolutionary pathway.Perhaps the most famous proponent of evolutionary theory is Charles Darwin (1809-82) who authored The Origin of Species (1859) to describe his theory of evolution. It was based largely on observations which he made during his 5-year voyage around the world aboard the HMS Beagle (1831-36). Since then, mankind's origin has generally been explained from an evolutionary perspective. Moreover, the theory of man's evolution has been and continues to be modified as new findings are discovered, revisions to the theory are adopted, and earlier concepts proven incorrect are discarded.Evolution of Man – Concepts in Evolutionary Theory` The currently-accepted theory of the evolution of man rests on three major principles. T hese principles hinge on the innate ability which all creatures have to pass on their genetic information to their offspring through the reproductive process. An alternative explanation for homology is a common designer. According to this reasoning, the similarities in anatomical features between species point to a blueprint used by a Creator/Designer. The first tenet is microevolution, the occurrence and build-up of mutations in the genetic sequence of an organism.Mutations are predominantly random and can occur naturally through errors in the reproductive process or through environmental impacts such as chemicals or radiation. The second tenet of evolution is natural selection. Natural selection is a natural mechanism by which the fittest members of a species survive to pass on their genetic information, while the weakest are eliminated (die off) because they are unable to compete in the wild. Natural selection is often termed â€Å"survival of the fittest† or â€Å"elimin ation of the weakest. The third tenet is speciation, which occurs when members of a species mutate to the point where they are no longer able to breed with other members of the same species. The new population becomes a reproductively isolated community that is unable to breed with its former community. Through speciation, the genes of the new population become isolated from the previous group. Evolution of Man – Scientific Evidence The theory of evolution of man is supported by a set of independent observations within the fields of anthropology, paleontology, and molecular biology.Collectively, they depict life branching out from a common ancestor through gradual genetic changes over millions of years, commonly known as the â€Å"tree of life. † Although accepted in mainstream science as altogether factual and experimentally proven, a closer examination of the evidences reveal some inaccuracies and reasonable alternative explanations. This causes a growing number of s cientists to dissent from the Darwinian theory of evolution for its inability to satisfactorily explain the origin of man.One of the major evidences for the evolution of man is homology, that is, the similarity of either anatomical or genetic features between species. For instance, the resemblance in the skeleton structure of apes and humans has been correlated to the homologous genetic sequences within each species as strong evidence for common ancestry. This argument contains the major assumption that similarity equals relatedness. In other words, the more alike two species appear the more closely they are related to one another. This is known to be a poor assumption.Two species can have homologous anatomy even though they are not related in any way. This is called â€Å"convergence† in evolutionary terms. It is now known that homologous features can be generated from entirely different gene segments within different unrelated species. The reality of convergence implies tha t anatomical features arise because of the need for specific functionality, which is a serious blow to the concept of homology and ancestry. Additionally, the evolution of man from ape-like ancestors is often argued on the grounds of comparative anatomy within the fossil record.Yet, the fossil record indicates more stability in the forms of species than slow or even drastic changes, which would indicate intermediate stages between modern species. The â€Å"missing links† are missing. And unfortunately, the field of paleoanthropology has been riddled with fraudulent claims of finding the missing link between humans and primates, to the extent that fragments of human skeletons have been combined with other species such as pigs and apes and passed off as legitimate. Although genetic variability is seen across all peoples, the process of natural selection leading to speciation is disputed.Research challenging the accepted paradigm continues to surface raising significant question s about the certainty of evolution as the origin of man. Evolution of Man – The Scrutiny The theory concerning the evolution of man is under increased scrutiny due to the persistence of gaps in the fossil record, the inability to demonstrate â€Å"life-or-death† determining advantageous genetic mutations, and the lack of experiments or observations to truly confirm the evidence for speciation. Overall, the evolution of man pervades as the accepted paradigm on the origin of man within the scientific community.This is not because it has been proven scientifically, but because alternative viewpoints bring with them metaphysical implications which go against the modern naturalistic paradigm. Nevertheless, a closer examination of the evidence reveals evolution to be increasingly less scientific and more reliant upon beliefs, not proof. Darwin's Theory of Evolution – The Premise Darwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that all life is related and has de scended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the flowers — all related.Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a purely naturalistic (undirected) â€Å"descent with modification†. That is, complex creatures evolve from more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival — a process known as â€Å"natural selection. † These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation.Over time, beneficial mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but an entirely different creature). Darwin's Theory of Evolution – Natural Selection While Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a relatively young archetype, the evolutionary worldview itself is as old as antiquity. Ancient Greek philo sophers such as Anaximander postulated the development of life from non-life and the evolutionary descent of man from animal. Charles Darwin simply brought something new to the old philosophy — a plausible mechanism called â€Å"natural selection. Natural selection acts to preserve and accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a member of a species developed a functional advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only the superior (advantaged) members of the species. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent to domestic breeding.Over the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic animal populations by selecting individuals to breed. Breeders el iminate undesirable traits gradually over time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time. Darwin's Theory of Evolution – Slowly But Surely†¦ Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a slow gradual process. Darwin wrote, â€Å"†¦Natural selection acts only by taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must advance by short and sure, though slow steps. Thus, Darwin conceded that, â€Å"If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. † Such a complex organ would be known as an â€Å"irreducibly complex system†. An irreducibly complex system is one composed of multiple parts, all of which are necessary for the system to function. If even one part is missing, the entire system will fail to function. Every individual part is integral. Thus , such a system could not have evolved slowly, piece by piece.The common mousetrap is an everyday non-biological example of irreducible complexity. It is composed of five basic parts: a catch (to hold the bait), a powerful spring, a thin rod called â€Å"the hammer,† a holding bar to secure the hammer in place, and a platform to mount the trap. If any one of these parts is missing, the mechanism will not work. Each individual part is integral. The mousetrap is irreducibly complex. Darwin's Theory of Evolution – A Theory in Crisis Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances we've made in molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years.We now know that there are in fact tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on the cellular level. Specified complexity pervades the microscopic biological world. Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote, â€Å"Although the tiniest bacterial cells are incredibly sma ll, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable micro-miniaturized factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular machinery, made up altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more complicated than any machinery built by man and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world. And we don't need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear and the heart are all examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not recognized as such in Darwin's day. Nevertheless, Darwin confessed, â€Å"To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection seems, absurd in the highest degree. However, despite all of its weaknesses and often unscientific character, human evolution will doubtless continue to be the most popular story in the evolutionary legend, and the cast of apes considered to be ancestral to man will continue to change, as it has in the past, but that is not important to evolutionism as long as the central â€Å"dogma† and its profound implications remains – man is a beast. Human Nature Human nature refers to the distinguishing characteristics, including ways of thinking, feeling and acting that humans tend to have naturally.The questions of what these characteristics are, what causes them and how this causation works, and how fixed human nature is, are amongst the oldest and most important questions in western philosophy. These questions have particularly important implications in ethics, politics and theology. This is partly because human nature can be regarded as both a source of norms of conduct or ways of life, as well as presenting obstacles or constraints on living a good life.The complex implications of such questions are also dealt with in art and literature, while the multiple branches of the Humanities together form an important domain of inquiry into human nature, and the question of what it means to be human. The branches of contemporary science associated with the study of human nature include anthropology, sociology, sociobiology and psychology, particularly evolutionary psychology and developmental psychology. The so-called â€Å"nature versus nurture† debate is a broadly inclusive and well-known instance of a discussion about human nature in the natural sciences.Man and His Cosmic Environment: We are connected to the cosmic nature through the proximity and the presence of our local star which we know as the sun (sol). Completely dominating the generation of life within the terrestrial environment in which we all have co-evolved; the sun has nine planets in orbit about itself, collectively known as the solar system. Our home, the Earth, is the third planet after Mercury and Venus. Beyond the Earth is Mars, then the asteroid belt, then the outer planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and lastly Pluto.The sun is a huge cosmic fire which spends its fuel of hydrogen by way of nuclear processes, to generate huge amounts of energy which is continually radiated out and away from the sun’s surface, and across the expanse of the solar system, out into the inter-stellar spaces. It is the systematic of three celestial bodies, the Sun, Earth and the Moon, which have defined and continue to define the specifications of the chariot which bears our life through the greater way of the cosmos.It is our relativity to these three bodies that has given rise to the human conception of both time and space in the cosmic environment. The terrestrial environment in which we dwell on a day to day basis is a subset of the greater cosmic environment. Earth Solar system Milky Way Galaxy Universe| Stars are found clustered together in galaxies, and galaxies in galactic clusters. There seems to be no observ able end to the cosmos. For example, it is estimated that our galaxy, the Milky Way, contains about 200 billion stars.It is further estimated that there are over 100 billion galaxies in the universe. The cosmos is thus observed to be an ocean of light, fed by the tributary streams of stars and galaxies. A vast and deep cosmic ocean of light, in which our planet, Earth is just an isolated and remote terrestrial island. Light travels at a speed of about 300,000km per second, capable of circulating about the Earth 712 times in one second. It takes about 8 minutes for light to reach us from the Sun, over four years from the nearest star and 400,000 years from the nearest galaxy.Because of this huge vastness of the cosmos, one common unit of measurement of cosmic distance is the light-year, which represents the distance which light travels in one Earth year. The nearest galaxies to the Milky Way are the large and small Magellanic Clouds which are located at some 150,000 light-years dista nce. The brightest of the closest galaxies is the Andromeda Nebula, which are 2,000,000 light-years away. The stars which we see in the night sky may be stars within the Milky Way, but they may also be remote galaxies, or even remoter galactic clusters.The Earth is estimated to be 412 billion years old while the sun is estimated to be about 5 billion years old. The supply of Sun’s fuel of Hydrogen is estimated to last another 5 billion years. Scientific Methodology: Science: (From the Latin Scientia, means â€Å"knowledge†) is a reliable body of knowledge that can be logically and rationally explained. Scientific method: refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.Philosophies fall into two primary categories namely: 1. Idealism and 2. Materialism. The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality, while to the idealist, spirit or mind is primary, and created matter is secondary. The materialistic philosophers believe that matter is primary and mind or spirit is secondary. The theory holds that the only thing that exists is matter and that all things are composed of material and all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of material interaction.Scientific method agrees with the materialistic philosophy where all scientific discoveries arise from human interaction with nature. This method of discovery is characterized by a sequence of steps, although these steps or procedures may vary from one field of inquiry to another, the general identifiable features that form the major steps in scientific method include: Observation, Problem definition, Hypothesis formulation, Experimentation, Conclusion and Theory formulation. 1. Observation: This is the first step in scientific method.It is either an activity of living being (such as human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the reco rding of data using scientific instruments. Observations that are made using the senses are said to be direct observation, while indirect observation is a situation where data are recorded using scientific instruments. In science, anything that cannot be observed cannot be investigated scientifically. For instance, it is easy to observe that when a stone is thrown up, it must always come down.Also, someone can observe plant growing in the dark produced pale yellow color instead of the normal green. Observations can be classified into two: (a)Spontaneous or passive observation: These are unexpected observations which arise from impulse or inclination, rather than from planning or response to situations. This type of observation begins with one noticing an object or event. Observation can only be meaningful if observer either consciously or unconsciously relates observations with relevant knowledge. (b)Induced or active observation: These are deliberate or intentional observations.In this case, the researcher carefully plans on how to study an object, a process, an event or response to a situation. Scientific observation can be enhanced by developing the habit of watching things with an active enquiring mind. A good observation comes after so many errors and corrections; more so, it should be observed independently by other scientist and report the same thing. 2. Problem definition: After an observation has been made, the hypothetical student becomes curious, for instance, he will decide to find out why a stone always comes down when thrown up.To be able to define a problem, questions must be asked. Just like good observation, to be of value to science a good question must be relevant and it must be testable. 3. Hypothesis: Once questions have been raised over a certain phenomenon, a good scientist then guesses what the answer to the question might be. This assumed answer is called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon or alternat ively a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set of phenomena. Normally hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model.Sometimes, but not always, they can also be formulated as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon being studied has some characteristics and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristics. Not all hypotheses relating to a particular problem are valid. The only way to decide which hypothesis is correct or valid is to test each of the hypotheses. This is where scientific experiments are important.The outcome of the experiment could lead to; i. Acceptance of the hypothesis ii. Modification of the hypothesis or iii. Rejection of the hypothesis. Once a hypothesis is modified or new once formulated, they must be tested afresh for validity by performing new experiments. Clearly, the guessing an d guess testing might go on for years and a right answer might never be found. Much faster progress would be made if the number of hypotheses were few. The amount of previous knowledge a scientist has, enables him to achieve this. 4. Experimentation:This is a technique for dealing with observational errors whereby a deliberate controlled of some properties (factors or variables) under different conditions is applied to see what varies or what remain the same. Once guesses are made, they can be tested by experiments. If test results contradict predictions, then hypotheses are called to question and explanations may be sought. Sometimes experiments are conducted incorrectly and are at fault. If the results confirm predictions, then the hypotheses are considered likely to be correct but might still be wrong are subject to further testing. . Conclusion: They are reached after analyses of experimental results are made . Conclusions may sometimes include in clear terms the acceptance or r ejection of a hypothesis. The hypothesis can also be redefined, modified and clarified when the situation arises. Some other conclusions may even be overthrown and discarded. For example, if after a controlled experiment involving only one variable, one may conclude that the other factors beside the one varied may be responsible for the observed problem/phenomenon. 6. Theory Formulation:A scientific theory comprises a collection of concepts, including abstractions of observable phenomena expressed as quantifiable properties, together with rules (called scientific laws) that express relationships between observations of such concepts. A scientific theory is constructed to conform to available empirical data about such observations, and is put forth as a principle or body of principles for explaining a class of phenomena. A theory is usually proposed when a hypothesis has been supported by really convincing evidence. This evidence must be obtainable in many different laboratories and by many researchers.Theories are open to tests, revisions, and tentative acceptance or rejection. As soon as new information is observed in the course of applying the theory, such existing or established theory is revised. Application of scientific method: Whether the scientific method can legitimately and fruitfully be used in the social sciences, Art, and in the socio-natural or hybrid sciences such as psychology and linguistics, has been a subject of controversy. The history of these sciences shows conclusively that the scientific method has been fruitful whenever it has actually been employed.For the pure sciences, the use of the scientific method stands out as a major characteristic aspect of their researches; its absence, therefore, is a sure indicator of non-science. In other words, a discipline where the scientific method plays no role is not a science. Thus, such field as theology, literacy criticism, psychoanalysis, homeopathy, graphology, and palmistry can hardly be regar ded as scientific. Application: Scientific method can be applied in real life situation as well as in scientific discoveries. Creative and Critical Thinking:Decision making is part of our daily activities and the quality of our decision could affect our lives and sometimes the lives of other people. For instance, imagine a cook in a restaurant who in trying to add salt to soup, pick a bottle containing cyanide instead; or when quality control officers in a flour company or a water board for instance, fail to take good decision. Many lives could be affected. The quality of our day to day decision depends to a great extent on the quality/procedure of our thinking. Effective thinking procedure consists basically of: . Creative thinking: is the type of thinking that is patterned towards formation of possible solution of problem or possible explanations of a phenomenon. 2. Critical thinking: is a purposeful reflective judgment concerning what to believe or what to do. Critical thinking c alls for the ability to: †¢Recognize problems, to find workable means for meeting those problems †¢Understand the importance of prioritization and order of precedence in problem solving †¢Gather and marshal pertinent (relevant) information †¢Recognize unstated assumptions and values Comprehend and use language with accuracy, clarity, and discernment †¢Interpret data, to appraise evidence and evaluate arguments †¢Recognize the existence (or non-existence) of logical relationships between propositions †¢Draw warranted conclusions and generalizations †¢Put to test the conclusions and generalizations at which one arrives †¢Reconstruct one's patterns of beliefs on the basis of wider experience †¢Render accurate judgments about specific things and qualities in everyday life Note: That an effective thinking must be creative as well as critical.Thus, an effective thinker (good scientist) must be able to create solution and criticize existing ones. The six steps of scientific methods actually cover these types of thinking; if one is to have real assurance that his/her final decision is sound, then all phases/steps must be completed. Effective thinking requires practice if it must be mastered. The amount of success one gets in effective thinking depends on how objective one is in viewing things (he/ she and the world) without bias.Willingness to concentrate on the pursuit of truth, taking up all problems and openness to one’s feelings is essential tools for objectivity. For the later, one must be able to discern when one’s feelings are relevant or not. Science and Technology in the Society and Service of Man: Science: This is an institution, a method or process of acquiring knowledge. It is the study of the physical and natural world and phenomenon, especially by using systematic observation and experiment. It is a systematically organized body of knowledge about a particular subject e. g. Chemistry, Physic s etc. It is omething studied or performed methodically; an activity that is the object of careful study or that is carried out according to a developed method. Science is both the process and product of investigation and research. Technology: Technology is defined as the application of scientific knowledge and research, with the aim of developing products or processes for the use of man. It consists of the practical knowledge of what can be done and how. It is not a body of theoretically related laws and principles. It is characterized by the techniques, devices, procedures, processes and materials.It is more of a collection of practical information that can be used to do something. Example: From agriculture, say a large crop of vegetables is in danger of destruction by insects, and agricultural scientists have already developed insecticides to be used to fight the insects. If a decision is taken to spray the insecticides from an airplane, that decision is made by an agricultural e ngineer. He will put economic and environmental factors into consideration in making the decision. All the techniques, procedures and materials used make up the technology of insecticides spraying from an airplane.It is important to note that in spite of the seeming difference between science and technology, they are intimately linked, or symbiotic. This is because technology will be crippled and blinded, if not for the new knowledge which science provides it. Science on the other hand will not progress much, if technology does not supply it with new instruments, new techniques and new power. For example the practice of photography (technology) originated before the theory of photographic process was formulated (science). Photographic materials were made by trial and error.Up till about 1950’s, the methods used in manufacturing photographic materials were a little advanced than the basic science of the photographic process. A point was reached however, when progress in photog raphy became slow. Progress was only accelerated when the physical chemistry underlying photography process was understood. X-rays were discovered through scientific research. The knowledge of theses x-rays machines. These x-ray machines, in turn now help scientific researchers to examine, for example the arrangement of atoms in crystals. So both science and technology go hand in hand. What Motivates Scientist and Technologists?What drives the scientist when he is acting as a scientist is the longing to know and understand. The key word here is curiosity. The scientist is curious to know and understand nature. He is not bothered about application of his knowledge. Other spirits of inquiry includes: 1. A questioning of all things 2. A search for data and relations that give meaning 3. A demand for verification 4. A respect for logic (sensible rational thought and argument rather than ideas that are influenced by emotion) What drives the technologist on the other hand is the desire to translate ideas and plans into concrete products or processes.The key word is know-how. His/ Her aim is to produce things and not to formulate theories about the devices and the techniques used in the process. It is important to note that the ideas implemented by the technologist are derived both from science and non-science areas. The corresponding plans are often developed by engineers. The Beginning and Importance of Technology in Human Affairs: In his desire to provide for his basic needs of food, clothing and shelter, he made and used tools (origin of technology). With time, man not only sought to satisfy his needs but also his wants.Technology also helped man to get what he wanted. These include play, leisure, houses, travelling, exotic foods, faster communication with others etc. Technology is as old as man himself. Man’s earliest tools were his hands and teeth. He graduated to stones, and then to sticks shaped to be used as tools. As time goes on, he developed tools of special types to be used for hunting, fishing and the making of clothes and shelters. Man’s technical progress is believed to be governed by two elements, which are: 1. Discovery 2. Invention A discovery is a new way of looking at an old phenomenon.Invention however, is defined as a mental process in which various discoveries and observations are combined and guided by experience into some new tool or operation. It is important to note that much experience is needed to lead to truly important inventions. The next stage in the evolution of technology is the discovery of fire. It is the most important discovery of Stone Age man. He used the fire to warm himself and to prepare tastier food. Fire then led to the birth of cooking and subsequently to the invention of suitable kitchen utensils and cooking methods such as baking, frying, steaming etc. Can you imagine what it’s like to eat uncooked food? ) The discovery of fire was therefore a very important event. Man later began to cultivate his own crops and rear animals for a more regular supply of food. This led to the establishment of communities. He domesticated animals and developed agricultural tools. He made textiles, produced pottery, invented the wheel and the sail to improve his transportation. Man also learned to mine and utilize metals such as copper and iron. The Importance of Science, Technology and Inventions:The factors that distinguish our age (20th century upwards) from the past are: 1. The recognition of the importance of science and technology in human affairs 2. The increased pace of scientific and technological development (which makes it part and parcel of our daily living) and 3. The realization that science and technology are not simply a limited or local factor. It encompasses all men everywhere, and is interrelated with nearly all human endeavors. The 20th century has been characterized by rapid advances in science, technology and inventions.We all feel the impact of them in our daily lives as well as in our social and political institutions. For instance, modern man has replaced the implements and tools of primitive man with tractors and ploughs for tilling the soil. This represents a higher level of technology. The hydrogen bomb, nuclear weapons/ missiles have replaced the bow and arrow technologies of the old eras. Even on the home front, housekeeping has been happily made easier for the housewives with the introduction of labor saving machines such as microwave and electric ovens, vacuum cleaners etc.Without doubt, the standard of living of a nation depends on science, technology and inventions. Developing nations such as Nigeria are beginning to realize one essential difference between them and the so-called developed nations. This is because of the fact that these developed nations have been able to create, master and use modern science and technology. This means that science, technology and invention form the foundation of modern existence. A highly developed education and research programs in the basic sciences are needed by any country that would want a secure and stable society.Knowledge of the basic sciences such as Physics, Biology and Chemistry are of indispensable value because it is through their research efforts that technological growth can take place. The stable society should be one where industrialization, public health care, advanced agriculture etc. can flourish. Long-term progress is only possible if a percentage of government funds are used for teaching and research. Renewable and Non-renewable Resources, Man and His Energy Environment: Energy: Energy can be defined as follows: 1. Energy is the strength and vitality needed to do vigorous activity 2.Energy is the ability of matter or radiation to do work Energy can be derived from physical resources to provide light, heat, current, voltage etc. Energy Sources: There are five ultimate sources of energy namely: 1. Sun 2. Motion and the gravitation potential of the sun, the moon and the earth. 3. Geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reactions and radioactive decay in the earth. 4. Nuclear reaction 5. Chemical reactions Among all these, energy sources can be grouped into two, namely: 1. Renewable and 2. Non-renewable energy resourcesRenewable energies are derived from sources 1, 2, 3 and 4, while non-renewable energies are derived from 1, 3, 4 and 5. Renewable Energy (Infinite Energy): This is energy obtained from continuous and repetitive current of energy occurring in the natural environment as a current or flow irrespective of there been a man-made device to intercept or harness the power. These energy resources are infinite and inexhaustible and their development requires investment in sophisticated technologies. Example of renewable energy resources are: 1. Wood and biomass: – Energy from trees and plants (e. . corn, can be converted to alcohol and ethanol, cassava to ethanol etc. ) 2. Hydroelectric power: – Energ y from water (Though to an extent not regarded as renewable resources. ) 3. Solar energy: – Energy from the Sun. 4. Wave energy: – Energy due to movement of ocean waters. 5. Tidal energy: – Energy from rise and fall of sea waters. 6. Fission nuclear energy: – Energy due to splitting of atoms. 7. Fusion nuclear energy: – Energy due to combining atoms. 8. Wind energy: – Energy due to air movement. 9. Geothermal energy: – Thermal energy from earth’s core etc.Non-Renewable Energy (Finite Energy): This is obtained from static/ stationary store of energy that remains bound unless released by human interaction e. g. nuclear fuel (Uranium), fossil fuel of coal, oil and natural gases. Note that the energy is initially an isolated potential and external action is required to initiate the supply of energy for practical purposes. These energy resources have limited life span, and also called exhaustible energy resources. Examples of non-re newable energy resources are: 1. Coal: – is a combustible sedimentary rock formed from the remains of plant life. 2.Petroleum energy: – Energy formed by decomposition of living matter mainly from marine organisms. 3. Natural gas: – Crude oil in reservoirs is always accomplished by a mixture of gas called natural gas. The principal component is methane CH4 about 85-95%. The remainder is mainly composed of ethane, propane and butane (hydrocarbons). 4. Shale oil: – Energy from solid or semi-solid of petroleum and natural gas. Shale oil cannot be recovered by conventional methods of petroleum production. They are sometimes referred to as oil or tar sand. 5. Peat: – A shaped block dug from a bog and dried for fuel.Uranium (U-235, U-236, U-238): – Is a common constituent of continental rock with an average crystal concentration of about 2 parts per million (2ppm). Concentration of Ore quality is generally in 2000-10,000ppm range i. e 0. 5-1. 0%. F ossil Fuels: – Encompasses coals, oil, natural gas, petroleum, shale oil etc. Energy Production and Environmental Damage: 1. Hydroelectric Power: – is widely utilized world-wide. It is a clean energy source but has certain disadvantages such as: * Destruction of natural vegetation * Destruction of farmlands * It is capital intensive Diverting waters by hydroelectric power displaces population and loss of agricultural farmlands. * Changes of river courses may affect the animal, plant and fish lives. 2. Environmental Impacts of Wind Power: – * Causes local noise pollution and electromagnetic interference. * Wind power is seen by others unsightly (not pleasant to look at), since the windiest sites are in areas of outstanding natural beauty, natural parks, and other scenic sites. 3. Tidal Energy Environmental Impacts: – Besides the high cost of capital, * It weakens fish reproduction. The ability of estuaries (wide tidal river mouth) to support wintering (col dness) and migrating bird’s population could be affected (though this area needs more research). * Tidal barrages can adversely affect migrating and spawning fish population (i. e. deposits of fish, frog’s eggs). 4. Environmental Impacts of Wave Power: – The environmental impacts are minimal; however the reliability of the technology is questionable. 5. Environmental Impacts of Solar Power: – * It is very expensive but environmentally friendly. 6. Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy: – Carbon dioxide CO2 and hydrogensulphide HS2 emission may be high (greenhouse gases). * Sinking land above geothermal wells can cause contamination of water by saline and possible toxic water (though these problems can be managed successfully). * Occupies plenty farmlands. 7. Environment Impacts of Biomass: – * Produces greenhouse gases and small amount of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s). * Waste disposals problems (Available land for disposals and da ngers from the bi-products). 8. Environmental Impacts of Fossil Fuels: – * Open cast mining and piling of waste scar (damage) landscape. Leakages of oil and gas from pipelines and installation also cause environmental pollution problems. * Combustion of fossil fuel can cause acid rain. * Combustion of fossil fuels produce greenhouse gases Acid Rain: It occurs because of the atmospheric continual effort to cleanse itself off various pollutants that are introduced into air. The water droplets in clouds absorb (hold) particulate matter and gas molecules out of the air. Not all such substances are removed by rain or precipitation but instead remain suspended in clouds and moisture. POLLUTIONPollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i. e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. Pollutants, t he elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when they exceed natural levels. Thus a pollutant can be defined as a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil.Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the long term. However the degradation products of some pollutants are themselves polluting such as the products DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene) and DDD (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane) produced from degradation of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane). Pollution is often classed as point source or non-point source pollution. Point Source PollutionA point source of pollution is a single identifiable localized source of air, water, thermal, and noise or light pollution. A point source has negligible extent, distinguishi ng it from other pollution source geometries. The sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as a mathematical point to simplify analysis. Pollution point sources are identical to other physics, engineering, optics and chemistry point sources and include: * Water pollution from an oil refinery wastewater discharge outlet * Noise pollution from a jet engine Disruptive seismic vibration from a localized seismic study * Light pollution from an intrusive street light * Thermal pollution from an industrial process outfall * Radio emissions from an interference-producing electrical device Types of air pollution sources which have finite extent are line sources, area sources and volume sources. Air pollution sources are also often categorized as either stationary or mobile. Non-Point Source PollutionNon-point source (NPS) pollution is water pollution affecting a water body from diffuse sources, such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Nonpoint source pollution can be contrasted with point source pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water at a single location, such as discharges from a chemical factory, urban runoff from a roadway storm drain or from ships at sea. NPS may derive from many different sources with no specific solution to rectify the problem, making it difficult to regulate. Forms of pollutionThe major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant to each of them: * Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter or fine dust is characterized by their micrometer sizePM10to PM2. 5. * Light pollu tion, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference. Littering * Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-intensity sonar. * Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE, herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons. * Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the environment. * Thermal pollution is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant. * Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards, scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash or municipal solid waste. * Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharges, eutrophication and littering. Sources and CausesAir pollution comes from both natural and man-made sources. Though globally, man-made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation. Environmental effects of textile wastes and other material: Textiles are types of fabrics made by weaving, or knitting. The principal raw materials used in textile manufacture are the natural fibers and synthetic (man-made) fibers 1. Natural fibers: These include (a) Vegetable fibers e. g. cotton, flax and hemp; (b) Animal fibers e. g. heep’s wool; and (c) Mineral fiber e. g. asbestos 2. Synthetic fibers: (a) They are polymers based on petroleum and cellulose such as nylon Textiles are manufactured to perform a wide range of roles. They are made up of different types of fibers that are mixed in varying proportions. The manufacture of natural textiles involves a wide variety of physical and chemical processes. The processes depend on the fiber type and the specification of the fabric product for use in clothing, furnishings or for industrial applications. Textile wastes and environmental effects: a) Textile wastes originate from both the household (consumer) and the industrial (manufacturing) sectors. (b) Consumer waste comprises wastes dumped in dust bins or that separated for reuse or recycling e. g. unwanted clothing and carpets. (c) Manufacturing waste originates from the processing of raw materials and in the fabrication and production of finished textiles and garments which include cuttings and rejected materials. Textile wastes can be classified thus: 1. Dangerous packaging wastes: These wastes come from the exhaustion of the laboratory chemical reactive. E. g. paper packaging wastes, plastic packaging w astes and metallic packaging wastes. 2. Non-dangerous packaging wastes: These come from the packaging of raw textile material of different types (such as fibers, yarns, fabrics) pieces of paper packaging wastes (such as boxes, bags, cardboard). 3. Non-dangerous wastes: Include textile wastes that are retained on equipment filters, raw materials and fibers, yarn, woven, knitted, cut offs, threads and defective items. Others are sludge for water treatment and also printing toners. 4.Dangerous wastes: These also include grease and oil impregnated rags, used oils – solvent wastes, fluorescent tubes – batteries (equipment and transport vehicles), chemical wastes, dyes, print pastes. , contaminated textile wastes with chemicals, wastes of electric and electronic equipment (with metals)etc. Environmental Effects: The environmental risks that are associated with the manufacture of clothing are limited with few significant risks. (a) Packaging wastes litter the land and occupy spaces that may be used for other purposes such as agric. b) The cutting and working of material generates significant quantities of small particles of fabric. These are called â€Å"fly† in the industries. High levels of fly and dust within buildings cause occupational health hazards (primarily respiratory). If uncontrolled, emissions of fly and dust may cause and nuisance problems outside the building. Lastly, If not properly cleaned, buildup of fly on machines can ignite and cause fires. (c) Textile waste in incinerators: These emit organic substances through incinerator chimneys. Organic substances include dioxins, heavy metals, acidic gases and dust particles.All these are potentially harmful to both humans and the environment. (d) Textile waste in landfills: * This contributes to the formation of leach- ate as it decomposes. * This has the potential to contaminate both surface and groundwater sources. * Methane gas (a major greenhouse gas, and a significant contributor to global warming) is also formed as a result of decay of textile waste in landfill. However, the gas can be utilized of collected. * Decomposition of organic fibers and yarns such as wool produces large amounts of ammonia and methane.Ammonia is highly toxic in both terrestrial and aquatic environments. It can be toxic in gaseous form and has the potential to increase nitrogen in drinking water. These have adverse effect on humans. Cellulose-based synthetics decay at a faster rate than chemical-based synthetics. Synthetic chemical fibers can prolong the adverse effects of both leachate and gas production due the length of time it takes for them to decay. Disposal: * Textile waste can be incinerated with other materials to produce energy (bottom fly ash). Bottom ash, can be used for construction purposes. * Fly ash used as a cement replacement. * Use of chrome substitutes such as aluminum, titanium, cod oil * Improved waste water treatment. * Good management environmental practices. Range from staff education and training. * Improving the quality and quantity of chemicals used; * Optimizing use of energy, water consumption etc. CHEMICAL AND RADIOCHEMICAL HAZARDS 1. RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS The need to understand what radiochemical substances are want danger they pose to the end users cannot be over emphasized.This important view should be embraced by all whether you are in the humanities or in science and technology discipline. Our environment must be kept safe for the benefit of life on our beautiful planet Radiochemical material and associated hazards are not new especially considering when radioactivity was first discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896. This discovery revolutionized the fields of physics and chemistry as new products and services relating to both the positive and negative uses to which it was put to use.Radiochemical hazards are generally associated with working with chemical and radioactive substances at any place but usually in the laboratories . The most important negative use to which radioactivity has been put to use was in the production and use of the nuclear bombs (atomic bombs) in Hiroshima and Nagasaki during the Second World War by the Americans. This marked the end of the war. Some of the benefits derived from the application of radioactivity are found in the field of medicine where specialized radiations have been used to treat cancer and tumors.It is used in x-ray where internal organs are investigated. In science, it has been used to study reaction mechanisms and structural analysis of materials. It is also used in generating electricity from nuclear reactions. These radioactive materials or chemicals have some health hazards associated with their usage, for example, the inventor of the word â€Å"radioactivity† Marie Curie died from a disease of the bone marrow as a result of her long term exposure to radioactive materials in 1934 at age 66.You will recall the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident in whic h many people died and several others were exposed to very high doses of radiations. Recently also, Japan woke up with a Tsunami that defercited the country their by damaging four of their nuclear reactors at Fukushima resulting in the death of many people and releasing very dangerous radiations to the environment which further poses serious health risk to life. Radioactive chemicals can render people impotent or result in the birth of medically handicapped children.Let us take a pause and define some basic concepts in radiation chemistry/physics. 2. DEFINITIONS OF SOME TECHNICAL TERMS * Radioactive: – Describes a substance such as uranium or plutonium that emits energy in the form of streams of particles, owing to the decaying of its unstable atoms. This energy can be damaging or fatal to the health of people exposed to it. * Hazardous: – Potentially very dangerous to living beings or the environment. * Radiotoxic: – Of toxic effect of radiation-relating to the toxic effects of radiation of radio-active substances. Radioactivity: – The breakdown of heavy atom into simple ones. * Radioactive substances (chemicals): – These are substances which are regarded as sources of ionizing radiations which may be either sealed or unsealed. Sealed sources (small) consist of radioactive materials permanently enclosed in containers e. g. Radium needles (226Ra), Radio cobalt needles (60Co), Radio gold (198Au), Radon seeds (222R), Radio tantalum (182Ta), Radio trium (90Y), Caesium needles (137Ce), Radio strontium plaques (90St). Large sealed sources for radiotherapy are normally charged with Cobalt 60 or Caesium 137. Chemical hazard: – Chemical hazard is the danger caused by chemicals to the environment and people. A chemical hazard arises from contamination with harmful or potentially harmful chemicals. Please take note of the following; * Toxic chemicals * Hazardous wastes * Hazardous chemicals * Radiochemistry: – Branch of c hemistry that deals with radioactive elements and their applications. * Radiology: – The branch of medicine that deals with the use of X-rays and radioactive substances such as radium the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. The science of radiation and radioactive substances and their application e. g. n structural analysis. * Hazardous wastes: – These are toxic byproducts of various processes, a byproduct of manufacturing processes or nuclear processing that is toxic and presents a potential treat to people and the environment. * Radioactive wastes: – Used radioactive materials waste. Material that is radioactive, particularly the waste from nuclear reactors and medical treatment and research. * Radioactive series: – Series of atom types; a series of related atom types nuclides of radioactive isotopes, each of which is transformed into the next by emission of an elementary particle until a stable nuclei is obtained.There are three (3) such substances, t he thorium, the uranium and the actinium and almost all naturally occurring radioactive isotopes belonging to one of them. 3. NATURAL SOURCES OF RADIATION The heavy radioactive elements found in nature are members of three different series of elements beginning with uranium, thorium and actinium. Since the 1970s, concern has grown over exposure of individuals to radon in homes and other buildings. Because radon is a gas, it can percolate from uranium bearing rocks, subsoil, or building materials into the air within a building.Radon itself is not a health threat because it is an un-reactive noble gas. It enters and exits the beings without remaining in the body. However, its decay product, polonium, from the oxygen family, is more reactive. Polonium can adhere to dust particles in the air that can become trapped in the lungs. Being an ? (alpha) emitter, polonium and its decay products are potentially cancer causing agents. As is always the case, evaluating the seriousness of the heal th threat from such a substance in the environment is difficult. 4. SOURCES OF RADIATIONS * Buildings/paint * Sun Nuclear plants * X-ray units in hospital (radiology dept) * Electronic gadgets * Contaminated air * Irradiated foods (as preservatives) * In research laboratories. (List more) 5. RADIATION AND MATTER During the decay of radioactive nuclide, mass is lost and energy is released. The nuclei and particles collide with the atoms and molecules of the surroundings. In this process valence electrons may be knocked of atoms and molecules to produce ions or pulled up to form or breakdown bonds. The end products are electromagnetic radiations (x-ray, ? -rays, ? -rays, ? -rays, neutrons etc. re formed. ) * Alpha rays (or ? -rays particles): -are of limited interest in diagnosis and therapy because they lack penetration, even when emitted at high energy. They have a high ionizing power. 24He=alpha ray, it is a+ve particle They are stopped by a sheet of paper or by the dead layer of t he skin. However, if ? emitting radionuclide’s enter the body (by ingestion or in halation or through open wounds) the alpha rays may cause serious injuries. * Beta rays (or ? -ray particles): -The rays are negatively charged particles of high penetrating power and high velocity.They are deflected toward the positive part of magnetic field. They are used medically for the treatment of superficial lesions. * Gamma rays (? -rays): – Like x-rays, are electromagnetic radiation. Unsealed gamma emitting sources are widely used in nuclear medicine for diagnosis and therapy; they have extremely high penetrating power, then ? and ? rays. The ray is very dangerous to living creatures because they can cause damage to the living tissues. 6. MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS RADIOCHEMICALS As has been discussed earlier, radiochemical have found a lot beneficial uses to man.But the major problem is how to handle them in such a way that they do not cause danger health problems to man. In the l ight of these, all necessary protective measures must be put in place to protect the users ’e . g; * All workers in nuclear sites or radiologists must wear protective materials, and such plants must be highly secured to minimize chances of accidents or over exposures. * The handling of nuclear wastes must be such that both short and long term dangers associated with the disposal are taken into consideration.For example, nuclear waste should not be dumped in the sea as exposure to life under the sea will definitely affect man (consumer). Also, burying them under the ground has its dangers, as the shifting of the earth crust could make these waste come in contact with major sources of water and thus will affect life. * Radioactive liquids should not be poured into sinks but into designated containers. Also radioactive waste cans’ for adequate disposal by burial * At the close of day; all parts of the body, including clothing should be thoroughly monitored.This is best do ne by wearing radioactive dictators like the pocket Dosimeter or any other pocket ionization chamber * Cosmetics should never be applied on the skin of any worker in that the radiochemical can easily perch on them. * Before leaving the laboratory, workers should check themselves from radiation with beta-gamma survey meters * Nobody should work with radioactive materials if he has a broken skin-unless he wears gloves. 7. CHEMICAL HAZARDS For the purposes of this work, all chemicals used in routine laboratory, hemical manufacturing process and general research work are considered as hazardous, hence it is very important we understand this and follow strictly those safety rules guiding their usage. 8. CLASSES OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS * Class 1 – Explosives * Class 2 – Compresses gases and poisonous gases * Class 3 – Flammable liquids * Class 4 – Flammable solids 9. MANAGEMENT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS As with radioactive materials, hazardous chemicals must be pro perly handle so as to prevent any health risk associated with their usage either directly or indirectly.Because of this similar safety precautions must be observed as is the case with radiochemical materials In addition the following general safety rules must be observed when handling chemicals. 10. LABORATORY SAFETY General Safety Guidelines for Chemical Lab * Material Safety Data Sheets: Know the hazard potential of each chemical you are using. Familiarize yourself with the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the materials you are using. * Personal Protection and First Aid * Wear eye protection (safety glasses or goggles) whenever you are working with material that can injure your eyes, especially acids, bases, and oxidizers. If you wear contact lenses, familiarize yourself with the special precautions. * Know the location of the emergency eye-wash stations, showers and first aid kits. Familiarize yourself with the operation of the eye wash station and shower. First aid kit is located in the chemistry lab. * Wear hand protection when handling corrosive or hazardous materials. The use of nitrile rubber is recommended when handling concentrated corrosive materials or organic solvents. Disposable PVC examining gloves offer minimal protection and are permeable to many organic substances. Check rubber gloves for holes and cracks before using. Do not touch surfaces with contaminated gloves. (Door knobs, equipment bench tops, drawers, etc. ) Rinse gloves well after use. * Open-toed shoes or sandals are not permitted in the chemistry labs. * Use of lab coats is recommended to protect your clothing. Protective aprons should be worn when handling highly corrosive materials. 11. CHEMICAL EMERGENCIES In a chemical emergency do not hesitate to follow these procedures because a spill or contact seems too trivial. It is better to overreact. * For skin contact, flood the affected area with water immediately and continues flooding for at least 15 minutes.If a substantial portion of the body is involved, use a safety shower. If the chemical is toxic, or it its toxic properties are unknown. * For eye contact, flood eyes with water and continue flooding for at least 15 minutes. Remove contact lenses if possible, or move to corner of the eye. * For inhalation or ingestion, follow direction on the product label. In case of spillage of any chemical: * If the volume of spill is greater than 500 ml (1 pint), or any amount of extremely toxic substance is spilled, evacuate and seal the area. * If the volume of spill is less that 500 m. 1 pint) and the substance is not extremely toxic, check the container or MSDS for special instructions. If no instructions are immediately available, encircle and cover the spill with absorbent material until the liquid is adsorbed. Do not flush with water. Neutralize strong acids with sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, or calcium hydroxide after absorbing. (Note: DO NOT absorb hydrofluoric acid- neutralize immediately). * S olid spills are not usually emergencies. If the spilled material is toxic, use damped cloths or paper towels to transfer the material to plastic bags.